# 0.1 中国文化常识.pdf 文件类型：PDF 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 003Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture (Revised Edition) 国务院侨务办公室 中国海外交流协会中国文化常识 （修订本） 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·004· 图书代号：JY14N1702 图书在版编目（ CIP）数据 中国文化常识 / 任启亮主编 . — 西安：陕西师范大学出版 总社有限公司 , 2015.5 ISBN 978-7-5613-7983-7 Ⅰ . ①中…　Ⅱ . ①任…　Ⅲ . ①中华文化—青少年读物 Ⅳ . ① K203-49 中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字（2014）第 276621 号 中国文化常识 总 策 划　屈瑞新 策划编辑　李强辉　李 蔷责任编辑　王成林　习华林责任校对　张爱林装帧设计　安 梁出 版　陕西师范大学出版总社 （西安市长安南路 199 号　邮编 710062）印 刷　东港股份有限公司开 本　787 mm ×1092mm　1/16印 张　22字 数　360 千版 次　2 0 1 5年5月 第1版印 次　2015 年 5 月第 1 次印刷书 号　ISBN 978-7-5613-7983-7Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 任启亮 　主编 【声明】 本书为推展海外华文教育免费赠送。 书中部分插图选自网络图库， 已支付相关费用 ； 还有部分图片的版权人无法取得联系，敬请权利人及时联系我们，以便奉寄稿酬。联系方式： 33234084@qq.com。 目 录 CONTENTS ·005· 国务院侨务办公室 中国海外交流协会 中国文化常识 主 编： 任启亮 副主编：时 序 编写人员：任启亮 时 序 李 晨 李嘉郁 赵菁华 彭 俊 中国文化常识（修订本） 主 编： 彭 俊 副主编：李嘉郁 修订人员（按姓氏音序排列）：李嘉郁 廖崇阳 盛继艳 特约英文编审：张　敏 Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council China Overseas Exchange Association Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture Chief Compiler: Ren Qiliang Deputy Chief Compiler: Shi Xu Writers: Ren Qiliang , Shi Xu, Li Chen, Li Jiayu, Zhao Jinghua, Peng Jun Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture (Revised Edition) Chief Compiler: Peng Jun Deputy Chief Compiler: Li Jiayu Reviser（in alphabetical order）: Li Jiayu, Liao Chongyang , Sheng Jiyan Special Review English Experts: Zhang Min 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·006· 目 录 CONTENTS ·007· 《中国历史常识》《中国地理常识》和《中国文化常识》是中 华人民共和国国务院侨务办公室、中国海外交流协会委托南京师范 大学、安徽师范大学和北京华文学院分别编写的一套华文教学辅助读物，供海外华裔青少年通过课堂学习或自学的方式了解中国历史、地理和文化常识，也可供家长辅导孩子学习使用。我们希望学习者通过学习，初步了解、掌握中国历史、地理和文化的知识，进而达到普及、弘扬中华文化和促进中外文化交流的目的。 The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China and China Overseas Exchange Association commissioned Nanjing Normal University, Anhui Normal University and Beijing Chinese Language College to respectively write this set of auxiliary Chinese language teaching materials, namely, Common Knowledge about Chinese History,Common Knowledge about Chinese Geography and Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture which acquaint overseas Chinese teenagers with basic knowledge on these subjects through class education or self -teaching. Parents can also use them to help their children with study. Moreover, we hope this set of books can offer a wider group of readers some rudimentary knowledge about Chinese history, geography and culture, thus promoting cultural exchanges between China and other countries. 根据海外华文教学的实际情况和需求，我们分别选编了中国历 史的重大事件和重要人物，进行客观记述；选取了中国地理最主要 的自然特点和人文特征，进行概略描述；筛选了中华文化和民俗风情的精华， 加以介绍。 突出体现科学性、 思想性和实用性的编写原则，在编排设计等方面力求有所创新。前言 Preface 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·008· 编 者 Compilers 2001 年 12 月 December, 2001 According to the actual condition and needs of overseas Chinese language teaching, in this set of books, we objectively narrate important events and figures in Chinese history; briefly describe the major natural and cultural features of Chinese geography; carefully select and introduce the essence of the Chinese culture, habits and customs. We have tried to introduce new ideas in typesetting, design and so on and to embody scientific, ideological and practical principles in the writing. 在上述三本书的编写过程中，苏寿桐、王宏志、臧嵘、侯明、 刘淑英、李芳芹等参加了《中国历史常识》的审稿工作；王永昌、 乐平兰、刘淑梅、毕超、徐玉奎、董乃灿、张桂珠、李文君等参加了《中国地理常识》的审稿工作；张英、张猛、董明、武惠华、陶卫、杨二林等参加了《中国文化常识》的审稿工作。在此，谨表示诚挚的谢意。 We are deeply grateful to Su Shoutong, Wang Hongzhi, Zang Rong, Hou Ming, Liu Shuying and Li Fangqin for revising Common Knowledge about Chinese History , Wang Yongchang, Yue Pinglan, Liu Shumei, Bi Chao, Xu Yukui, Dong Naican, Zhang Guizhu and Li Wenjun for revising Common Knowledge about Chinese Geography , and Zhang Ying, Zhang Meng, Dong Ming, Wu Huihua, Tao Wei and Yang Erlin for revising Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture . 书中考虑不周或疏漏之处，祈盼使用者不吝赐正，以期再版时 修订。 Advice is welcomed if there were any mistake in the books. We will revise them when republishing the next edition. 目 录 CONTENTS ·1· 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 概述 Introduction 中华民族 The Chinese Nation 汉族 The Han 壮族 The Zhuang 满族 The Manchu 回族 The Hui 苗族 The Miao 维吾尔族 The Uyghur 彝族 The Yi 蒙古族 The Mongolian 藏族 The Tibetan 朝鲜族 The Korean002 004 007009 011 013 015 017 019021024027目录 CONTENTS 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·2· 傣族 The Dai 高山族 The Gaoshan 民俗篇 Folk Customs 概述 Introduction 传统节日 Traditional Festivals 吉祥图案 Auspicious Designs 十二属相 Twelve Symbolic Animals 中国人的姓名 Names of Chinese People 庙会 Folk Temple Fair 传统服装 Traditional Costumes 中国茶 Chinese Tea 中国酒 Chinese Wine 中国菜 Chinese Cuisine 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 概述 Introduction 爱国情怀 Patriotic Sentiments 崇尚操守 The Advocating of Integrity 尊老爱幼 Respecting the Aged and Caring for the Young029 032 036 037 043049 052 055 057 060 063 066 070 071 073 075 目 录 CONTENTS ·3· 尊师重教 Honoring the Teacher and Stressing Education 勤劳俭朴 Industry and Frugality 勤奋好学 Diligent and Eager to Study 谦虚礼让 Modesty and Comity 诚实守信 Honesty and Trustworthiness 乐善好施 Being Glad to Give to Charities 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 概述 Introduction 四大发明 Four Great Inventions 辉煌的天象观测成就 Splendid Achievements of Astronomic Observation 古代历法与二十四节气 Ancient Chinese Calendar and 24 Seasonal Division Points 精妙的古代天文仪器 Ingenious Astronomic Instruments of Ancient China 伟大的数学贡献 Great Contributions to Mathematics 算盘与珠算 Abacus and Calculation with an abacus 自成体系的中医药学 Unique Traditional Chinese Medical Science 中医的特色疗法：针灸、推拿、刮痧和拔火罐 Unique Therapies in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Acupuncture, Moxibustion, Massage, Scraping Treatment and Cupping Therapy 农学经典：《齐民要术》与《农政全书》 Agricultural Classics: Qi Min Yao Shu (Essential Skills to Benefit the People ) and Nongzheng Quanshu (Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology ) 古为今用的水利工程——都江堰 The Dujiangyan Irrigation Project078 081083 086 089 092 096 098 103105 108 112 115 117 120 123125 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·4· 黄道婆与中国棉纺织业 Huang Daopo and the Cotton Textile Industry of China 中国 17 世纪的工艺百科全书——《天工开物》 Tiangong Kaiwu (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature )—A Craftwork Encyclopedia of China in the 17th Century 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 概述 Introduction 汉语 The Chinese Language 普通话和方言 Standard Chinese and Dialects 《汉语拼音方案》 Scheme of Chinese Pinyin 汉字的起源与形体演变 The Origin and Evolution of Chinese Characters “六书”与《说文解字》 Liushu (Six Categories of Chinese Characters) and Shuo Wen Jie Zi (The Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters ) 繁体字与简化字 Original Complex Chinese Characters and Simplified Chinese Characters 文学篇 Literature 概述 Introduction 远古神话 Myths of Remote Antiquity 《诗经》 The Book of Songs 楚辞 Chu Ci 先秦散文 Pre-Qin Prose 汉乐府 Yuefu Songs of the Han Dynasty127 129 132 133 135 138 140143 146 150 151 153 155 157159 目 录 CONTENTS ·5· 南北朝民歌 Folk Songs of the Southern and Northern Dynasties 唐诗 Poetry of the Tang Dynasty 宋词 Ci Poetry of the Song Dynasty 元杂剧 Zaju of the Yuan Dynasty 明清小说 Fiction of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 20 世纪中国文学 Chinese Literature in the 20th Century 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 概述 Introduction 书法 Calligraphy 中国画 Traditional Chinese Painting 篆刻 Seal Cutting 盆景 Bonsai 民族音乐 Chinese Music 京剧 Peaking opera 地方戏 Local Chinese Opera 曲艺 Quyi 杂技 Acrobatics 皮影和木偶 Leather-silhouette Show and Puppet Show 武术 Martial Arts161 163 166 168 170 173 176 177 180 184 186 188 191 194 197 200203206 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·6· 象棋和围棋 Xiangqi (Chinese Chess) and Weiqi (Go) 建筑篇 Architecture 概述 Introduction 宫殿建筑 The Imperial Palace 宗教和祭祀建筑 Religious and Sacrificial Constructions 塔 Ancient Pagoda 桥梁 Ancient Bridge 园林 Classical Gardens 楼亭轩榭 Lou (Storied Buildings) and Ting (Kiosk), Xuan (Pavilions) and Xie 民居 Civil Residences 　　工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 概述 Introduction 陶器 Pottery and Porcelain 瓷器 Porcelains 丝绸 Silk 刺绣 Embroidery 漆器 Lacquerware 景泰蓝 Jingtai Lan (Cloisonn é)209 214 216 219 222225228 231 233 238 239 242245248251253 目 录 CONTENTS ·7· 玉雕 Jade Carving 剪纸 Papercutting 中国结 Chinese Knotting 蜡染、扎染和蓝印花布 Batik, Tie-Dye and Blue Print 微雕 Micro Carving 扇子 Fan 风筝 Kite 文房四宝 Four Treasures of Study 文物篇 Cultural Relics 概述 Introduction 人面鱼纹彩陶盆 Colored Ceramic Basin with Human Face and Fish Patterns 红山玉龙 Jade Dragon of Hongshan Culture 后母戊鼎 Houmuwu Square Cauldron 越王勾践剑 Sword of King Goujian of Yue 秦始皇陵兵马俑 Terracotta Warriors and Horses 素纱襌衣 Unlined Plain Silk Gauze Garment 铜奔马 Bronze Galloping Horse 兰亭序 The Preface to Lanting 唐三彩骆驼载乐俑 Tang Tri-colored Glazed Pottery of Camel Carrying a Band255 258 261 263 266 268270 272 276 277 279 281 283 286 289 291 293 295 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture ·8· 五牛图 The Painting of Five Oxen 清明上河图 Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival 定窑孩儿枕 Baby-shaped Pillow from Dingyao Kiln 编织象牙席 Woven Ivory Bed Mat 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 概述 Introduction 儒家思想 Confucianism 道教 Taoism 佛教 Buddhism 民间信仰 Folk Beliefs 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 概述 Introduction 丝绸之路 The Silk Road 佛教来华 The Introduction of Buddhism into China 遣唐使来华与鉴真东渡 Japanese Missions to China and Jianzhen's Eastward Voyages 郑和下西洋 Zheng He's Voyages to the Occident 西学东渐与东学西传 The Mutual Diffusion of Western and Chinese Learning298 300303 305 308 309 312315318 322 324 327 330 333 336 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 001 民族篇 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 蒙古族服饰 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 002中国是一个统一的多民族国家。在漫长的历史发展过 程中，勤劳、勇敢、智慧的各族人民，共同开拓了中国的 疆域，创造了灿烂的文化，缔造了中华民族大家庭。 China is a unitary multi -national country. Through the long process of historical development, the Chinese people consisting of many different ethnic groups have together opened up the vast territory of China, created an outstanding culture, and helped shape the current form of the Chinese nation. 中国有 56 个民族，由于地理环境和生活条件的不同， 每个民族都形成了自己特有的风俗习惯和优秀的文化传统。 There are 56 ethnic groups in China. Due to different geographical environments and living conditions, each ethnic group has formed its own unique customs and excellent cultural traditions. 汉族人口遍布于中国大陆各个省市以及台湾、香港和 澳门， 约占全国总人口的 90%。 汉文化是中华文化的主体， 几千年间，在政治、军事、哲学、经济、自然科学、历史、文学、艺术等各个领域，都产生了众多的具有深远影响的概述 Introduction People of minority ethnic groups in national costumes on the Tiananmen Square National unity Ding1. 天安门广场身着民族服装的各族 人 民 2. 民族团结宝鼎 1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 003代表人物，为中华民族的进步 与发展做出了卓著的贡献。 The Han people are spread throughout all provinces and cities in the mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao, accounting for about 90% of the total population of the country. The Han culture is the main body of Chinese culture. For thousands of years, many iconic figures of the Han ethnic group have emerged in the fields of politics, military affairs, philosophy, economy, natural science, history, literature, art and so on, making outstanding contributions to the progress and development of the Chinese nation. 55 个少数民族中除了回族、满族一般使用汉语外，其他少数民族都有自己的语言， 有的还有自己的文字， 他们大都具有迷人的风土人情、 独特的民族乐器、 优美的民族歌舞、 丰富多彩的神话诗歌和源远流长的历史传说。 All minority ethnic groups, except for the Hui and the Manchu, which usually speak Chinese, have their own languages, some of which have their own written languages. Most of them have charming customs, unique musical instruments, beautiful national songs and dances, rich myths and poetry, and long - standing legends. “五十六个民族五十六朵花，五十六个兄弟姐妹是一家”。中华各民族的文化既具 有多元区域性的特点，又呈现出很强的统一性。这种多元一体化，正是中国这个统一的 多民族国家赖以生存和发展的重要基础，也是中华民族的突出特点之一。 The ethnic groups of China show unity in diversity. Such unity in diversity is an important basis for the survival and development of China as a unitary multi -national country, and it is also one of the outstanding characteristics of the Chinese nation.2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 004The Chinese Nation中华民族 黄帝和炎帝是中华民族的共同祖先。黄帝姓姬 （Jī） ， 号轩辕氏；炎帝姓姜，号神农氏。黄帝和炎帝是两个部落的 首领， 都生活在距今四五千年前的中国原始社会后期。 当时，黄帝部落和炎帝部落都居住在黄河流域。炎帝族曾与中国东部的以蚩尤 （Chīyóu） 为首领的东夷集团发生战争，炎帝部 落联合黄帝部落，打败了蚩尤。后来，炎帝部落和黄帝部落也发生了冲突，炎帝部落失败后，加入了黄帝部落。黄帝部落、炎帝部落和东夷以及南方的苗蛮集团经过长期的交往和融合，构成了华夏 ①族的主干。华夏族自汉朝始称为汉族。 Huangdi and Yandi were the common ancestors of the Chinese nation. Huangdi's surname was Ji, and his assumed name was Xuanyuan Shi. Yandi was also a legendary ruler whose surname was Jiang and assumed name was Shennong Shi. Both Huangdi and Yandi lived in the late period of China's primitive society about 4,000 or 5,000 years ago, and were the leaders of two different tribes living along the Yellow River in present -day Shaanxi Province. A war once broke out between Yandi's tribe and the Dongyi group headed by Chiyou in east China; Yandi's tribe allied with Huangdi's to defeat Chiyou. Conflicts later occurred between Yandi's tribe and Huangdi's, and Yandi's tribe was assimilated into Huangdi's after the former was defeated. After long - term association and integration, Huangdi's tribe, Yandi's tribe, Dongyi and the Miao group in south China formed the mainstay of the Huaxia ethnic group ①, who got the name of the Han in the Han Dynasty. 据说，黄帝教人们 建筑房屋、喂养家畜， 他还发明了车、 船、 乐器、衣帽、弓箭，他的妻子 小注解·Footnotes ① 华夏：原指中原地区的 人民，也是汉朝以前对汉族先 民的称谓。后来则包括中国全部领土，也是中国的代称。古人以服饰美丽为“华”，以疆界广阔为“夏”，“华夏”的本意就是“文化繁荣而疆域辽阔”。 ① Huaxia: Originally the people in the Central Plains of China, and also the name of the ancestors of the Han people before the Han Dynasty. Later, it contains the whole territory of China, and an allusion of China itself. The ancient Chinese people described the beauty of clothes as "hua," and the vastness of territory as "xia," so the original meaning of "huaxia" means "the prosperity of culture and the vastness of territory." 1 2 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 005嫘祖（Léizǔ） 发明了养蚕， 史官仓颉 （Cāngjié） 创造了文字。 炎帝教人制造农具、播种五谷、凿井取水，他还亲尝百草， 发现了治病的药材。现在，在陕西省黄陵县的桥山上，还保留着黄帝陵和黄帝庙，湖南省炎陵县也保留着炎帝陵。 Legend has it that Huangdi taught people how to build houses, breed livestock and grow crops, and invented the cart, boat, musical instruments, clothes, hats and bow and arrow, that his wife Leizu pioneered a silkworm -raising technique, and his historiographical official, Cangjie, invented written characters. Also according to legend, Yandi taught people to make agricultural tools, sow crop seeds, and dig wells. Moreover, Yandi sampled various herbs in person, discovering various herbal drugs for treating diseases. Still preserved to this day are both the Mausoleum of Huangdi and the Temple of Huangdi on Mount Qiaoshan in Huangling County, Shaanxi Province, and the Mausoleum of Yandi in Yanling County, Hunan Province. 中国自古以来就是一个统一的多民族国家，经过数千 年的繁衍发展与民族融合，“中华民族”已成为了中国各 民族及海外华人的统称。炎黄是中华民族兴起和统一的象征，成为中华民族共同的祖先。现今的中华民族包括汉族和其他 55 个少数民族。其中汉族是中华民族的主体民族。 China has been a unitary multi -ethnic country since ancient times. After thousands of years of procreation, development and ethnic integration, "the Chinese nation" has become a common name for all ethnic groups of China and overseas Chinese. The emergence both of Yandi and Huangdi marked the rise and unification of the Chinese nation, making them the common ancestors of the Chinese nation as a whole. At present, the Chinese Nation consists of the Han and 55 minority ethnic groups, with the Han as the majority group. 55 个少数民族中，人口在 1,000 万以上的有壮族和 满 族；人口在 1,000 万—100 万的有蒙古族、回族、藏族、 维吾尔族、苗族、彝 （Yí） 族、布依族、朝鲜族、侗 （Dònɡ） 族、 瑶族、 白族、 土家族、 哈尼族、 哈萨克族、 傣 （Dǎi） 族、 黎族等 16 个民族； 人口在 100 万—10 万的有傈僳 （Lìsù） 族、 佤（Wǎ） 族 、畲（Shē） 族、 拉祜（Lāhù） 族、 水族、 东乡族、 纳西族、 景颇族、 柯尔克孜族、 土族、 达斡尔 （Dáwòěr） 族、 仫佬（Mùlǎo） 族、羌（Qiānɡ） 族、仡佬 （Gēlǎo） 族、锡The Mausoleum of Huangdi in ShaanxiThe statue of Huangdi The statue of Yandi2. 陕西黄帝陵1. 黄帝像 3. 炎帝像3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 006伯族等 15 个民族；人口在 10 万—1 万的有布朗族、 撒拉族、 毛南族、阿昌族、普米族、塔吉克族、怒族、乌孜别克族、俄罗斯族、 鄂温克 （Èwēnkè） 族、 德昂族、 保安族、 裕固族、 京族、基诺族等 15 个民族；人口在 1 万以下的有高山族、塔塔尔族、独龙族、鄂伦春族、门巴族、珞巴 （Luòbā） 族、 赫哲（Hèzhé） 族等 7 个民族。 Among the 55 minority ethnic groups, the Zhuang and the Manchu have populations of more than 10 million; those with populations between 10 and 1 million totaling 16 are the Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, Uyghur, Miao, Yi, Buyi, Korean, Dong, Yao, Bai, Tujia, Hani, Kazak, Dai and Li; those between 1 million and 100,000 are the Lisu, Wa, She, Lahu, Shui, Dongxiang, Naxi, Jingpo, Kirgiz, Tu, Dawoer, Mulao, Qiang, Gelao and Xibo, numbering 15 in total; those between 100,000 and 10,000 also amount to 15, which are respectively the Bulang, Sala, Maonan, Achang, Pumi, Tajik, Nu, Ozbek, Russian, Ewenke, Deang, Baoan, Yugu, Jing and Jinuo; and those less than 10,000 are the Gaoshan, Tatar, Dulong, Elunchun, Menba, Luoba and Hezhe, totaling 7. 中国的少数民族虽然人口相对数量很少，但是分布区 域广泛，居住相对集中。广西、内蒙古、新疆、西藏、宁 夏 5 个民族自治区分别是壮族、蒙古族、维吾尔族、藏族、回族几个较大的少数民族集中居住的地区。云南、青海、贵州、四川等省份也有大量少数民族聚居，其中，云南省内有 20 多个少数民族， 是中国少数民族聚居最集中的省份。 Despite their relatively small populations, the minority ethnic groups of China live in compact communities spread over wide areas. Guangxi, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet and Ningxia are five ethnic autonomous regions, which are respectively the concentrated habitation areas of several ethnic groups with larger populations, namely the Zhuang, Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan and Hui. In Yunnan, Qinghai, Guizhou, Sichuan and other provinces there are also the compact communities of minority ethnic groups. In particular, more than 20 minority ethnic groups inhabit Yunnan Province, making it the province with the most concentrated habitation of ethnic groups in China.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 中华 ： “中华”一词 ，大 约在魏晋时就已经出现，南北朝 已普遍使用， 是由 “中国” 与 “华夏”两个名称复合而成，意思是“位居中心而文化繁盛”。“中华民族”这个称谓始见于清末，辛亥革命以后被用来作为中国各民族对外的统一称号，包括中国历史上和现在的各民族在内。 Zhonghua: The emergence of the word "Zhonghua" dates back to the Wei and Jin Dynasties or so, and became popular in the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. It is a compound word of "Zhongguo" and "Huaxia," meaning"state in the central position and prosperous culture." The expression "Zhonghua Minzu" first occurred at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and began to be used for the general reference of all ethnic groups of China after the 1911 Revolution, including those of China both historically and at present.The Mausoleum of Yandi in Hunan1. 湖南炎帝陵 1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 007The Han汉族 汉族是中国的主要民族， 也是世界上人口最多的民族。 汉族是一个历史从未中断过的古老而又现代的民族，是中 国古代华夏族同其他许多民族互相同化、融合形成的。 The Han is the largest ethnic group not only in China, but also throughout the world. It is an ancient but simultaneously modern nation whose history has never been discontinued, and is a result of the assimilation and mergence of the ancient Huaxia ethnic group with many other ethnic groups. 汉族有近 4,000 年文字记录的历史， 人口遍及中国各地， 通用的语言是汉语。汉族人民勤劳俭朴、积极进取，创造 了举世瞩目的古代文明。早在春秋时期，汉族人就开始了大规模的农田水利建设；汉族人的养蚕、丝织、制茶、制瓷等技术，名扬海外；造纸术、印刷术、指南针和火药的发明，为世界文化与科学技术的发展做出了突出贡献；汉族人在文学艺术方面也取得了伟大的成就， 楚辞、 汉乐府、唐诗、宋词、元杂剧、明清小说等形成了汉文学在各个历史时期发展的高峰。系统完备的历史著作，忠实地记录了 中华民族成长发展的辉煌历史。历史悠久的书法、绘画和 建筑艺术，具有独特的魅力，留下了许多传世佳作；汉 族人中还涌现出许多闻名中外的思想家、科学家、文学 家、艺术家、政治家和军事家。 The Han ethnic group has a recorded history of about 4,000 years. Its people are scattered throughout China, and the commonly used language is Mandarin Chinese. The Han people are diligent, frugal, ambitious and proactive, and have thus created ancient civilizations that captured the world's attention. As early as the Spring and Autumn Period (770 -476 BC), the Han had begun large - scale irrigation and water conservancy projects; the techniques they invented for sericulture, brocade weaving, tea production and porcelain making were renowned overseas; the invention of papermaking, printing, the compass and gun powder made Han women in cheongsam1. 身着旗袍的汉族妇女 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 008 outstanding contributions to the development of world culture and scientific technology. The Han have also made great achievements in literature and arts: Chuci (The Songs of Chu) , Yuefu (folk songs or ballads in the Han style) of the Han Dynasty, Poetry of the Tang Dynasty, Ci poetry of the Song Dynasty, Zaju (poetic drama set to music, usually consisting of four acts called Zhe, with one character having the singing role throughout) of the Yuan Dynasty, and the novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties were the cultural high points of each era. Systematically complete historical works faithfully recorded the course of the Chinese nation. Calligraphy, painting, and architectural arts from great antiquity have their unique charm, and many excellent works are still appreciated by today's generations. Many the Han thinkers, scientists, writers, artists, statesmen and strategists, with prestige beyond national border, also emerged. 汉族人有着较深的宗族观念，崇尚群体利益、重视伦 理道德、勤奋好学是汉族主要的传统文化意识。汉族普遍 尊奉孔子的儒家思想，宗教态度较为宽容，不论是与本土的道教，还是与外来的佛教、伊斯兰教等，总体来说都能和平共处。 The Han people have a deep sense of patriarchal clan, and their major traditional cultural consciousness is to value collective benefits moral principles, and be diligent and devoted to reading and studying. The Han people generally embrace the Confucian thought of Confucius, and have a relatively tolerant attitude towards various religions, capable of peacefully coexisting with both believers of indigenous Taoism and those of exotic Buddhism and Islam at large. 汉族人最重视的节日是春节， 此外还有元宵节、 清明节、 端午节、七夕节、中秋节、重阳节等。 The Han people attach the highest importance to the Spring Festival; in addition, they celebrate the Lantern Festival, the Qingming Festival,the Dragon Boat Festival, the Double seventh Festival, the Mid - Autumn Festival and the Double Ninth Festival etc. 在长期的历史发展过程中，汉族和各兄弟民族之间有 着广泛的政治、经济联系和文化交流。现在，汉族与各兄 弟民族之间和睦相处，团结互助，共同为建设自己的国家贡献着力量。 Through their long historical development, the Han people have forged extensive political and economic links and cultural exchanges with other fraternal nationalities of China. Today, they get along well with all people of all other ethnic groups, meet together in cooperation, and make joint efforts to build their own.A young lady of the Han ethnicity dressed in red with traditional flower pattern A collective picture of a Han family in a traditional courtyard1. 身穿传统大红花布衣的汉族少女 2. 汉族大家庭在四合院的全家福1 2 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 009壮族是中国人口最多的一个少数民族。 广西壮族自治区是他们的主要居住区，少 数分布在云南、广东、湖南、贵州等省份。 The Zhuang, the most populous minority group of China, mainly live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, with a small number distributed in Yunnan, Guangdong, Hunan and Guizhou provinces, etc. 壮族聚集区为岭南西部，那里气候温 和，雨量充沛，多热带、亚热带作物。农 产品有水稻、玉米、薯类等。这里地形奇特，风景如画， 名扬天下的桂林山水更是吸引了来自世界各地的游客。 The mass of the Zhuang people live in the west Lingnan area, which has a moderate climate and sufficient rainfall, and abounds with tropical and sub -tropical crops. The agricultural products include rice, corn, sweet potatoes and so forth. This place has both spectacular terrains and picturesque scenery; particularly the world famous landscape of Guilin, which attracts tourists from all over the world. 壮族在历史发展的过程中，创造了瑰丽多彩的文化艺 术。早在春秋战国时期，壮族人就能制造铜鼓。铜鼓既是 乐器，也是权利和财富的象征，人们常在宗教活动或喜庆的节日里敲奏它，并伴以歌舞。久负盛名的壮锦是壮族妇女独创的手工艺品，壮锦用色彩鲜艳的棉、丝、绒线织成，图案非常美丽、 别致。 壮族人家里的被面、 台布、 门帘、 坐垫、手提袋等用品，很多是用壮锦做成的。 The Zhuang people have created colorful culture and art. As early as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period (770 - 221 BC), the Zhuang people produced bronze drums, which were not The zhuang壮族 Zhuang lady women in their traditional costume1. 身着民族服装的壮族妇女 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 010only musical instruments but also a symbol of power and wealth. Such drums are often played and accompanied with singing and dancing in religious rituals or celebration days. Zhuang brocade, a special kind of handcraft product created by the Zhuang women and having long enjoyed a great reputation, is woven with cotton, silk and floss threads of bright color in exquisite patterns. Many quilt covers, tablecloths, door curtains, cushions, handbags and the like in this region are made of Zhuang brocade. 美丽富饶的壮乡， 素有 “歌海” 的美誉， “三月三歌圩节” 是壮族人传统的歌节。 每到歌节， 方圆数十里的男女青年， 都穿上盛装， 聚集到山坡上， 对唱山歌， 用唱歌来表达爱情，结交朋友，祈求风调雨顺、五谷丰登。 The Zhuang people like to sing folk songs. The Antiphonal Song Day is a traditional Zhuang singing festival, which is held around the third day of the third month each year in Chinese lunar calendar. On this occasion, young men and women who live within a certain distance of one another dress in their most splendid attire and gather on hillsides to sing in antiphonal style. Through these songs, people express love, make friends, and pray for good weather and a good harvest. 壮族人崇拜巨石、老树、高山、土地、龙蛇和祖先等。 牛魂节是壮族及侗族、瑶族等民族的节日。牛魂节在春耕 以后举行。人们给牛放假一天，把牛栏修整一新，并蒸制糯米饭喂牛，体现了壮族人敬牛、爱牛的传统。 The Zhuang people worship big stones, old trees, lofty mountains, land, dragons, snakes, their ancestors and so forth. The Festival of the Ox Souls is peculiar to people of the Zhuang, Dong, Yao and other ethnic groups. This festival is held after the spring plowing. The oxen and cows will have a good rest and be fed with cooked glutinous rice in five colors and fresh grass for one day, and the cowsheds will be repaired that day. This festival showcases the tradition of the Zhuang people's respect and love for oxen.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 刘三姐：刘三姐是壮族民 间传说人物。相传为唐代壮族 农家女，聪明伶俐，12 岁能自编自唱，歌声优美动人。壮族人民尊她为“歌仙”，至今还有“如今广西歌成海，都是三姐亲口传”的传颂。 Liu Sanjie: Liu Sanjie was a legendary girl of folklore, who came from a peasant Zhuang family during the Tang Dynasty. She was very smart, able to compose and sing songs by herself at the age of 12. The Zhuang people respectfully call her the Fairy Singer, and a saying still goes among the populace that "Now Guangxi is a sea of songs, which are all taught by Sanjie herself." Zhuang brocade Liu Sanjie in the scene of Guilin landscape (a film still)1. 壮族壮锦 2. 桂林山水实景中演出的 《刘三姐》 1 2 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 011The Manchu满族 满族主要分布在东北三省，以辽宁省最多。 The Manchu people are mainly distributed in the three northeast provinces of China, with the mass of them inhabiting Liaoning Province. “满族”即“满洲族”，其前身是女真族。明朝末年， 努尔哈赤经过 30 年的努力，统一了女真各部落。在此过程 中，创立了兵民合一的八旗制度①，所以后来人们也称满族 人为“八旗人”或“旗人”。1636 年，努尔哈赤的儿子皇太极自称皇帝，改国号为清，改族名为满洲。1644 年，清军进入北京。 Today's Manchu people are the descendents of the N üzhen ethnic group in ancient times. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Nurhachi unified N üzhen tribes after 30 -year efforts. In the course of unification, he set up an "Eight Banners System" ①, in which all civilians were conscripted. Hence, people of later generations call the Manchu people the "Eight Banners People" or "Banner People." In 1636, Nurhachi's son Huangtaiji proclaimed himself an emperor and renamed Nüzhen Manchuria, and changed the name of their state to Qing. In 1644, the Qing army entered Beijing. 满族是个能歌善舞的民族。 每逢佳节、 喜庆、祭祀等，都要歌舞尽兴。满族民歌 丰富多彩，如劳动号子、山歌小调、风俗歌曲、儿童游戏歌和爱情歌。至今，在边远的满族聚居区，仍保留着富有浓郁民族特色的传统歌舞。 Manchurian culture values singing and dancing skills. On each festival occasion, celebratory events and worship, people would A scene of the Shenyang Imperial Palace1. 沈阳故宫 1小注解·Footnotes ① 八旗制度：清代满族的 军队和户口编制。这种编制以 旗为号，分为正黄、正白、正红、正蓝、镶黄、镶白、镶红、镶蓝等八旗，后来又增建蒙古八旗和汉军八旗。八旗的官员平时管理民政， 战时担任将领。旗民子孙永远当兵。 ① Eight Banners System: A military and permanent residence registration system of the Manchurians during the Qing Dynasty. This system took banners as signals, which were classified into Eight Banners: Pure Yellow, Pure White, Pure Red, Pure Blue, Bordered Yellow, Bordered White, Bordered Red, and Bordered Blue. Later, Eight Mongolian Banners and Eight Han Military Banners were added. The officers of Eight Banners were in charge of civil affairs in peacetime, and played the role of military commanders in wartime. The descendents of the Eight Banners members were born to be servicemen. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 012sing and dance to their hearts' content. Manchurian folk songs vary in styles, including work songs, ditties, custom songs, children's playing songs and love songs. Nowadays, traditional ethnic songs and dances full of Manchurian characteristics can still be seen in remote Manchurian habitation areas. 过去， 满族男子都要留发辫， 穿长袍和 “马 褂”（套在长袍外面的短褂）。女子的发式也 很独特，一般都把头发梳在头顶，盘成发髻，然后再戴上漂亮的头饰。妇女穿的是直筒宽袖的旗袍，后来这种旗袍逐渐演变出了各种样式，成为中华民族富有特色的服装。 Manchu men were expected to wear their hair in a single plait, and dressed in a gown with horse - hoof-shaped cuffs and a mandarin jacket. The women's hairstyle was also quite unique; they usually coiled their hair on the top of the head in a bun, and then wore beautiful headdresses. Manchu women wore a cheongsam with a straight skirt and broad sleeves. Later, this kind of cheongsam gradually evolved into various styles, becoming characteristic customs of Chinese nation. 满族的传统食品中有一种非常好吃的点心，叫“萨其 玛”。“萨其玛”是用面粉、鸡蛋、糖、芝麻、瓜子仁等 原料做成的，很多人都喜欢吃。 Among the traditional foods of the Manchu ethnic group, there is a very delicious snack called saqima (a kind of Manchu candied fritter). Made of flour, eggs, sugar, sesame and kernels of sunflower seeds, it is many people's favorite. 满族人勤奋好学，涌现出许多文化名人，如《红楼梦》 的作者曹雪芹、语言学家罗常培、作家老舍、书法家启功、 京剧表演艺术家程砚秋等。 The Manchu people are diligent and fond of learning, and among them were many famous men of culture, such as the author of A Dream of Red Mansions Cao Xueqin, linguist Luo Changpei, writer Lao She, calligraphist Qi Gong, performance artist of Peaking opera Cheng Yanqiu, and so forth. A picture of Manchu people's saluteManchu people in ethnic costume 2. 满族人请安图1. 身着民族服装的满族人1 2 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 013The Hui回族 回族是回回民族的简称。回族分布广泛，主要聚居于 宁夏回族自治区，在中国其他地方也有许多回族人聚居和 散居。 汉语为回族的共同语言， 在日常交往及宗教活动中，回族保留了一些阿拉伯语和波斯语的词汇。在边疆民族地区，回族人民还经常使用当地少数民族的语言。 Hui is the abbreviation of Huihui. The Hui people are widely distributed. With the mass of them inhabiting the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, there are also many living in compact communities or in scattered settlements in other regions of China. The Hui people use Chinese language as their common language, but they keep a few Arabic and Persian words in their everyday life and religious activities. In bordering minority areas, the Hui people often use the language of the local minorities. 回族人信仰伊斯兰教，习惯在聚居的地方修建清真寺。 主要的节日有开斋节、圣纪节和 古尔邦节①。 The Hui people are Muslims, and they are accustomed to building a mosque in their communities. Their major festivals are the Lesser Bairam, Mawlid al - Nabi (Shengji Festival or the Birthday of the Prophet Mohammed), and Corban Festival ①. 伊斯兰教对 回族人有很深的 影响 ：回族小孩出生后 ，要请阿Students of Hui nationalityAn aged Hui man The Nanguan Pass Mosque in Yinchuan, Ningxia Muslims taking part in worship in a mosque2. 回族学生1. 回族老人 3. 宁夏银川南关清真寺 4. 清真寺内穆斯林在做礼拜 1 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 014訇 ② （hōnɡ） 起名字；回族人结婚时，要请阿訇证婚；去世 后，要请阿訇主持葬礼；回族人不吃猪肉，也不吃一切动 物的血和自死的动物。回族在穿戴、姓名和风俗习惯上基本和汉族相同， 所不同者主要体现在头饰上 ： 男子多戴白色、黑色或棕色的无沿小圆帽；妇女多戴盖头，特别是在西北地区，老年妇女戴白色的，显得洁白大方，中年妇女戴黑色的，显得庄重高雅，未婚女子戴绿色的，显得清新秀丽。 Islam has a deep influence on the life and customs of the Hui people: When a baby is born, he will be given a Hui name by an imam②; when people get married, they invite an imam as the chief witness; when one dies, an imam will be invited to preside over the funeral; the Hui people do not eat pork, and nor do they eat the blood of any animal or the corpse of animals that die naturally. Now, the Hui people are almost the same as the Han in terms of clothes, ornaments, names and customs, only that men normally wear white, black or brown caps, and women veils. Especially in northwest China, aged women wear white veils, which make them look graceful; the mid -aged wear black ones, which make them elegant, and maids are in green, which looks fresh and pretty. “花儿”是流传在甘肃、青海一带深受回族人民喜爱 的民歌形式。每年在固定的时间（农历六月的第一天至第 六天） ， 人们都聚集于风景秀丽的山间举行传统的 “花儿会” 。 "Hua'er" is a kind of folk song popular among the Hui people in Gansu and Qinghai provinces. Every year, from the first to the sixth day in June in the lunar calendar, people gather in scenic hills to hold traditional hua'er parties.小注解·Footnotes ① 穆斯林三大节日：伊斯 兰教历 9 月，所有成年的、身 心健康的穆斯林男女都要进行一个月的斋戒，斋月结束时举行开斋节， 届时人们沐浴净身，施散钱财，听阿訇讲经，互相道安，祈祷亡人。伊斯兰教历的 12 月 10 日，是古尔邦节，这一天人们要沐浴净身，室内焚香，斋戒半日，上午去清真寺参加会礼，请阿訇宰牲，将所宰牛、羊肉的一部分分赠亲友、济贫施舍。圣纪节是纪念穆罕默德逝世的日子，在每年的 3 月，活动中要诵经演说，讲述穆罕默德的圣绩，有的地方还要举行盛大的善事宴会。这三大节日，对回族来说，既是宗教节日，又是民族节日。在中国， 它也是回族、 维吾尔族、哈萨克族、乌孜别克族等信奉伊斯兰教的民族共同的节日。 ① Three Most Important Islam Festivals: All grown-up Muslims who are mentally and physically healthy, male or female, observe a one-month fast in the 9th month of Islamic calendar, and hold the Lesser Bairam Festival (Fast-breaking Festival) at the end of this Ramadan month. On this occasion, all people bathe themselves, give donations, attend imams' lectures on scriptures, greet one another and pray for the dead. On December 10 in the Islamic calendar is the Corban Festival when people have bath, burn incense, and go on fasts for half a day. In the morning, people go to mosques, invite imams to kill animals, and present beefs and mutton to relatives and friends, or give donations to those in need. The Shengji Festival is a day to commemorate the death of Prophet Mohammed. In March each year, people recite scriptures, give lectures, and tell the holy signs of Mohammed; in some places, large-scaled philanthropy banquets are given. These three important festivals are both religious festivals and ethnic ones for the Hui. In China, they are also the common festivals of the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh and Ozbek ethnic groups, which all believe in Islam. ② 阿訇：伊斯兰教称主持 清真寺教务和讲授经典的人。 ② An imam: presides over Islamic religious activities and teaches Islamic scriptures. 4 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 015The Miao苗族 苗族是中国西南地区人 口较多的一个民族，苗族分 布很广，主要在贵州、湖南、云南、 四川、 广西、 湖北、 广东、海南等省，大多数苗族人居住在贵州省。 The Miao form a relatively populous ethnic group in southwest China, and are widely distributed in Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hubei, Guangdong, and Hainan Provinces, although most live in Guizhou Province. 苗族是个爱美的民族。 勤劳的苗族人用他们创造的 刺绣、挑花、织花、蜡染、银饰装扮自己的衣着，美化自己的生活。喜戴银饰是苗族姑娘的天性，每到节日，穿得最漂亮的是妇女，她们身穿美丽的绣花衣裳， 头上、脖子上戴着各种银饰 ①，看起 来异彩纷呈，美不胜收，素有 “花衣银饰赛天仙” 的美称。 The Miao like to be well groomed. They dress up and beautify their lives with handmade embroidery, cross -stitching, patterns, wax printing, and silver ornaments. Miao girls are especially born to love silver ornaments. On festive days, women dress most beautifully, A Miao girl wearing colorful clothes and silver ornaments Wax printing of the Miao1. 身着花衣银饰的苗族姑娘 2. 苗族蜡染 小注解·Footnotes ① 苗族银饰 ：苗家女子 从出生开始，家里就着手为其 准备一套银饰，这套银饰从头到脚，件数繁多。苗家有“以钱为饰”的习俗，戴银饰品是一种财富的象征，因而形成了苗家人对银饰品的三大审美特征 ：以大为美、以重为美、以 多为美。 ① Silvery ornaments of the Miao: Miao families begin to prepare a set of silver ornaments for a girl from the time of her birth, and such a set of silver ornaments contains a large number of items, ranging from items on the head to those on the foot. The Miao people have a custom to "take money as ornaments;" they view silver ornaments as a symbol of wealth, and develop three aesthetic characteristics of silver ornaments: large sizes, heavy weight and large numbers. 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 016wearing embroidered clothes with silver articles and varied silver ornamentsa on the head and around the neck. Their costumes and ornaments have been long praised. 苗族喜食酸味，用坛子腌的坛酸菜种类很多，还有酸 辣面、酸干菜、酸泡菜、腌鱼（酸鱼）、腌肉（酸肉）等。 酒是苗族人民常用的饮料，每家都酿制，有烧酒、米酒等。 The Miao people are fond of sour flavors, and produce various types of pickle with jars, including acid -hot noodles, acid dried vegetables, pickled fish (with an acid taste) and pickled meat (with an acid taste). Liquor is a common drink for the Miao people, and is brewed in every household, including distilled liquor and rice wines. 苗族人的节日很多，主要有龙舟节、花山节、吃新节、 赶秋节等。由于苗族分布很广，各地苗族人过的节日也有 所不同。 The Miao people have many festivals, such as the Dragon - Boat Festival, the Flower -Mountain Festival, the New Crop Tasting Festival, and the Autumn Harvest Festival. Since the Miao are widely distributed, the festivals differ from place to place. 在节日里， 苗族人要举行各种各样的庆祝活动， 其中， 吹芦笙、对歌、斗牛是最有特色的活动。芦笙是苗族人喜 欢的一种管乐器，用很多根芦竹管和一根吹气管装在木制的座子上制成。芦笙音色明亮浑厚，男女均可吹奏。每当过节、婚嫁喜事、起房盖屋时，人们总要手捧芦笙，载歌载舞，以此抒发自己的欢乐和感情。 On festive days, the Miao people hold various celebration activities, among which the most characteristic are sheng (a reed pipe wind instrument) performances, antiphonal singing and bullfighting. The sheng is a favorite musical instrument of the Miao people. It is made of many reed pipes and a blowing pipe on a wooden base. The sheng has sonorous and rich timbre, and is played by both males and females. At every festival, weddings or house construction, people always play the sheng while singing and dancing to express their joy.A party of sheng performance of the Miao people1. 苗族芦笙会 1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 017在新疆维吾尔族自治 区，居住着维吾尔族、塔吉 克族、柯尔克孜族、乌孜别克族等十多个少数民族，维吾尔族是其中人口最多的一个民族。“维吾尔”有“联合”“团结”的意思。 The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region is inhabited by more than 10 ethnic minorities, including the Uyghur, Tajik, Kyrgyz and Uzbek, among which the Uyghur (which means "rally" or "unity") is the most populous. 维吾尔族信奉伊斯兰教，有自己的语言和文字。历史 悠久的维吾尔族文学艺术具有独特的民族风格，其中阿凡 提① 的故事为中国各族人民所熟悉和喜爱。每逢节庆，维 吾尔族男女老少都要载歌载舞，尽情欢乐。维吾尔族舞蹈轻盈优美，通常以旋转、快速、多变著称。“赛乃姆”是人们喜爱的舞蹈，通常是一人独舞或两人对舞，其他人围坐在四周拍手喝彩，场面热烈欢快。 Uyghurs are Muslims, and have their own spoken and written language. Uyghur literature and arts have a long history and a special style; The Story of Afanti① is familiar to, and liked by all ethnic groups in China. During festivals, the Uyghur people sing and dance to enjoy themselves, both men and women, old and young. The Uyghur dances are lively and beautiful, usually known for their whirling movements, speed and variety. "Sanam" is a favorite dance of the people, usually performed by one or two dancers, with the audience sitting around clapping hands and shouting "bravo." The scene is warm and cheerful.The Uyghur维吾尔族 A Uyghur lady in ethnic clothes Uygur people's staple diet — nang1. 身着民族服装的维吾尔族姑娘 2. 维吾尔族人的主食——馕 1 2小注解·Footnotes ① 阿凡提：阿凡提是一位 民间传说中的人物。在新疆维 吾尔族人民心目中，阿凡提勤劳、勇敢、幽默、乐观，富于智慧和正义感，在他身上，体现了劳动人民勤劳勇敢的品质和爱憎分明的感情。 ① Afanti: Afanti is a character in Uyghur folk stories. In the minds of the Uyghur people in Xinjiang, Afanti is diligent, brave, humorous and optimistic, and full of wisdom and the sense of justice. He showcases the characters of the hard-working people and their clear idea about what to love or hate. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 018维吾尔族人的服装鲜艳美丽，不论男女老少都喜欢戴 一种名叫“尕巴（ ɡǎbā） ”的四棱小帽，男子穿的对襟长 袍叫“袷袢 （qiāpàn） ”，女子喜欢穿宽袖连衣裙，外套 黑色对襟背心。姑娘出嫁以前，要把头发梳成很多根辫子 披在肩上，她们认为，头发越长越漂亮。 Uyghur costumes are brightly colored and beautiful, and all men and women like to wear a diamond -shaped skullcap named gaba. Uyghur men traditionally wear qiapan, a robe buttoning down in the front, while women like to wear a one -piece dress that has loose sleeves with a black front -buttoned waistcoat over it. Young women wear many plaits over the shoulders before marriage, believing the longer the hair, the more beautiful a woman is. 维吾尔族人喜欢喝奶茶、吃羊肉和用面粉烤制的馕 （nánɡ） 。别具民族风味的“抓饭”，是过节和待客时不 可缺少的食品。“抓饭”是用大米、羊肉、羊油、胡萝卜、 葡萄干、 洋葱做成的， 因为用手抓着吃， 所以被称为 “抓饭”或“手抓饭”。维吾尔族人的手工业历史悠久，工艺精湛的地毯、丝绸、小刀和绣花帽深受各国朋友的喜爱。 Uyghurs like to drink milk tea, eat mutton and nang (a kind of crusty pancake) baked with flour. Zhuafan, which is of ethnic flavor, is a necessary food at festivals and for the treatment of guests. It is made of rice, mutton, goat oil, carrots, raisins and onions; because it is eaten with the hands, it is known as zhuafan or shouzhuafan. The Uyghur ethnic group has a long history of handicrafts -their carpets, silk cloth, knives and embroidered skullcaps of exquisite craftsmanship are favorites for people both at home and abroad. 维吾尔族人很早就开始从事农业生产。他们在盆地的 边缘和戈壁上开发出片片绿洲， 利用地下水修建 “坎儿井”② 灌溉良田。 主要的粮食作物是小麦、 玉米、 水稻。 无核白葡萄、 哈密瓜、长绒棉、和田玉等是新疆特产。 Uyghurs began to farm long ago. They have opened up oases at the edge of basins or in the Gobi desert, and built the karez② to irrigate fertile farmland with underground water. The main grain crops are wheat, corn and rice. Coreless grape, Hami melon, long -staple cotton and Hotan jade are special local products of Xinjiang.小注解·Footnotes ② 坎儿井：新疆干旱地区 流行的一种灌溉工程。从山坡 上直到田里挖成一连串的井，再把井底挖通，连成暗沟，把天山上融化的雪水和地下水引来浇灌田地。这种暗沟设计主要是为了防止干旱气候引起的地面水分蒸发。 ② Karez: A kind of irrigation system popular in the arid areas of Xinjiang. This kind of project consists of a series of wells from a mountainside to the field, with the bottoms of the wells connected with underground ditches. In this way, both the melted snow water in the Tianshan Mountains and underground water are channeled to irrigate the lands. Such underground ditches are mainly intended for avoiding the ground surface water transpiration caused by dry climate.Afanti2. 阿凡提 21 Zhuafan food of the Uyghur1. 维吾尔族的手抓饭 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 019彝族是中国西南地区人口较多的一个少数 民族。他们主要居住在云南、四川、贵州、广 西等省区，四川凉山彝族自治州是最大的彝族聚居区。 The Yi are a relatively populous ethnic group in southwest China, and are mainly distributed in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces. The Yi Autonomous Prefecture of Liangshan in Sichuan Province is the largest Yi community. 彝族有自己的语言文字，流传在全国的叙事长诗《阿 诗玛》①， 讲述了彝族姑娘阿诗玛的动人故事。 彝族在天文、 历法、气象、医药等方面也有独特的创造。 The Yi people have their own spoken and written language. Their long narrative poem Ashima①, which circulates throughout the country, tells a touching story of a Yi girl named Ashima. The Yi have also made unique contributions to the fields of astronomy, calendar systems, meteorology, medicine and so on. 彝族的传统服装样式很多。妇女常常穿镶边或绣花的 大襟上衣和多褶长裙，裙边镶着各种颜色。云南红河地区 的彝族姑娘还喜欢戴一种鸡冠式的绣花帽， 据说这是吉祥、幸福的象征。彝族男子一般都穿黑色窄袖、右开襟的短上衣和多褶、宽裤脚的长裤，喜欢用长长的青布或蓝布包头并且在前面扎一个长锥形的“英雄结”。男女外出时都要披一件用羊毛线织成的斗篷，白天用它挡风寒，晚上用它当被子。 Traditional Yi clothes have many styles.Women often wear edged or embroidered jackets with large front pieces and a pleated long skirt edged with cloth of various colors. Yi girls in Honghe area of Yunnan Province The Yi彝族 Yi girls in ethnic clothes1. 身着民族服装的彝族姑娘1 小注解·Footnotes ① 《阿诗玛》：彝族撒尼 人的民间叙事长诗。主人公阿 诗玛是个聪明美丽的撒尼姑娘，她和勤劳勇敢的阿黑相爱。当地财主派人抢走她做儿媳妇，阿黑和财主斗智斗勇，终于把她救了出来。财主不甘心，求崖神放水淹死他们俩。最后，阿诗玛被水冲走， 变成了石峰，她的声音永远回荡在石林中。全诗充分体现了彝族撒尼人民的生活习惯和风俗人情。 ①Ashima : Ashima is a folk epic of the Sani, a sub-branch of the Yi ethnic group. The heroine was smart and pretty Sani girl, who was in love with hard-working and brave Ahei. A local landlord sent hired thugs to kidnap her, trying to force her to be his daughter-in-law. Ahei used tactics and bravery against the landlord, and finally saved Ashima out of the landlord's hands. Being reluctant, the landlord prayed the Cliff God to release flood to drown those two. At the end, Ashima was flooded away, and turned into a rock peak, with her voice echoing among the stone forests forever. The poem vividly depicts the life habit and customs of the Sani branch of the Yi. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 020wear a kind of cockscomb - shaped embroidered hat, regarded as a symbol of good luck and happiness. Yi men generally wear short black jackets with tight sleeves, buttons on the right, and long trousers with many pleats and loose bottoms; they like to use a long black or blue cloth for a head covering, tying it in a cone -shaped "hero knot" in the front. When the Yi people go out, they wear a sleeveless cloak woolen, which they can use as a quilt at night. 彝族人喜欢饮酒。逢年过节，各家各户的阿妹都会捧 出一坛自家酿的美酒放在门前，插上几枝竹竿或麦秆，凡 是从门口路过的人，都会被热情相邀，用杆杆咂吸几口，所以有“秆秆酒”之说。 The Yi people like to drink liquor. In festival seasons, each household presents a jar of delicious self -brewed liquor, and inserts several bamboo pipes or wheat stalks in it. Every passer -by will be warmly invited to take a few sips, so it is known as "ganganjiu" (liquor drunk with bamboo pipes or wheat stalks). 火把节是彝族、白族、纳西族、基诺族、拉祜族等少 数民族最隆重的传统节日。不同的民族举行火把节的时间 也不同，彝族在农历的六月二十四日举行。火把节上，人们举着火把边唱边跳，形成一条长长的火龙，把村村寨寨映得通红。 据说， 人们点燃火把是为了驱赶害虫， 保护庄稼。节日期间，彝族人还要杀鸡宰羊，祈求丰年。 The Torchlight Festival is the grandest traditional festival of the Yi, Bai, Naxi, Jinuo and Lahu minorities, and the times to hold such Torchlight Festivals vary from one minority ethnic group to another. The Yi people celebrate it on the 24th day of the sixth month in lunar calendar. During the Torchlight Festival, people hold torches while singing and dancing, forming a long fiery dragon that bathes villages in a crimson glow. Traditionally, people lit torches to drive away pests to protect crops, and during this festival, the Yi also kill chickens and goats to pray for a good harvest. Yi men drinking ganganjiu A still from the film Ashima1. 彝族男子饮秆秆酒 2. 电影《阿诗玛》剧照 21 3 Yi's Torchlight Festival3. 彝族火把节 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 021The Mongolian蒙古族 蒙古族主要聚居在内蒙古自治 区，其余分布在中国的东北、西北地 区。位于中国北部边疆的内蒙古自治区，土地辽阔，物产丰富，广阔的草原成为天然的牧场，其中呼伦贝尔大草原最负盛名。 The Mongolian people mainly live in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region in the frontier areas in northern China, which consists of a far -flung territory and abundant produce, with the rest in northeast and northwest China respectively. The vast grasslands form a natural pasture, among which the Hulun Buir Grassland is the most famous. 蒙古族是一个历史悠久而又富于 传奇色彩的游牧民族。11 世纪至 12 世纪时，北方草原上分布着许多部落，蒙古部铁木真的势力逐渐强大。12 世纪末至 13 世纪初，铁木真完成 了北方草原的统一，从此统称草原各部为蒙古。1206 年，铁木真被尊为“成吉思汗 （hán） ”（“成吉思”是“最大” 的意思，“汗”是蒙古等少数民族最高统治者的称号）。成吉思汗和他的子孙经过多年征战，一度控制了从亚洲内陆直至欧洲的广大区域。1271 年，成吉思汗的孙子忽必烈建立元朝。1279 年，元朝统一了中国。 The Mongolians are a nomadic ethnic group with a long and legendary history. During the period from the 11th century to the 12th A Mongolian wedding1. 蒙古族婚礼1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 022century, there were many tribes in the grasslands of the north, among which the Mongolian tribe under Temujin gradually became powerful. At the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century, Temujin fulfilled the unification in the northern grasslands, and all the tribes in the grasslands began to be called the Mongolians in general. In 1206, Temujin was enthroned as "Genghis Khan" ("Genghis" means "the greatest", and "khan" was the title of supreme rulers of some minority ethnic groups such as the Mongolians). After years of warfare, Genghis Khan and his descendants conquered the vast territory from the inland of Asia to Europe. In 1271, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty, and in 1279, the Yuan Dynasty united China. 蒙古族有自己的语言文字，蒙古语属阿尔泰语系。蒙 古族民歌高亢悠扬，蒙古族舞蹈节奏欢快，蒙古族人最喜 欢的乐器马头琴①，琴声悦耳动听。他们以自己的智慧创造 了丰富的歌舞音乐和诗歌作品，被称为“音乐民族”和“诗歌民族”。 The Mongolians have their own spoken and written language, which belongs to the Altai phylum. Mongolian folk songs have high pitches and melodious tones, Mongolian dances are in joyful rhythms, and Mongolian people's favorite musical instrument horse -head qin① is euphonic. The Mongolian people have created an abundance of music and songs, and are reputed to be "a nation of music" and "a nation of songs." 小注解 · Footnotes ① 马头琴：蒙古族人民喜 爱的乐器。两弦，有梯形的琴 身和雕刻成马头形状的琴柄，马头琴声音圆润，低回宛转。 ① Horse-head qin: A popular musical instrument of the Mongolians, with two strings, a trapezoidal major structure and a sculptured handle in the shape of a horse head. The voice of a horse-head music instrument is mellow, melodious and in low pitches. 1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 023小注解 · Footnotes ② 蒙古包：蒙古族牧民居 住的一种房子。由木材和毛皮 制作，架设很简单，一般搭建在水草适宜的地方。 它外形小，但包内使用面积大， 空气流通，采光条件好，冬暖夏凉，不怕风吹雨打，非常适合于经常转场放牧的民族使用。 ② Mongolian yurt: a kind of house of Mongolian herdsmen. Made of wood and fur, it can be easily erected. Usually, it is set up where water and grass are available. Despite its relatively small size, it has large usable areas inside, good ventilation and lighting conditions. It feels warm in winter and cool in summer inside, and resists both wind and rain, making it very suitable to the nomadic ethnic groups.蒙古族牧 民的生活方式 很有特色 。他们冬季穿用丝绸或棉布做衣面的皮袍 ，喜欢用红绿绸缎做腰带 ，常常佩带荷包和蒙古刀 。男子习惯戴帽子 ，妇女则用红 、蓝 色的布包头。 牧民们喜欢吃牛羊肉和奶制品， 喜欢喝奶茶。他们大多住在圆形的蒙古包 ②里。 Mongolian herdsmen live a unique lifestyle. They wear a fur gown with a silk or cotton -cloth surface in winter and a cloth gown in summer; they wear red or green silks and satin waistbands, and often carry with them a pouch and a Mongolian knife. Mongolian men are accustomed to wearing a hat, and women a red or blue headpiece. The herdsmen like to eat beef, mutton and dairy produce, and drink black tea and brick tea. Most live in round Mongolian tents known as a yurt ②, which has skylight ceiling for ventilation and lighting. “那达慕” 大会是蒙古族人民一年一度的盛大节日。 “那 达慕”是蒙古语，意思是“娱乐、游戏”。大会上有扣人 心弦的赛马、 摔跤、 射箭比赛和精彩的歌舞表演。 “那达慕”大会多在草原牛羊肥壮、 稻谷飘香的 8 月份举行。 每逢盛会，人们便从四面八方赶来参加比赛、观看表演，宁静的大草原顿时变成了欢乐的海洋。 The Nadam Fair is an annual grand festival for the Mongolian people. Nadam is a Mongolian word, meaning "entertainment" or "happy get -together." It features horse racing, wrestling, archery competition and exciting song and dance performance. The Nadam is usually held in August, when the livestock are fat and the rice is ripe in the grassland. Every time this magnificent fair is held, people come from all directions to participate in competitions and watch performances, and the tranquil grasslands are then turned into a land of fun and joy.A Mongolian yurt Horse racing at the Nadam Fair1. 蒙古包 2. 那达慕大会上赛马2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 024The Tibetan藏族 藏族主要分布在西 藏自治区以及青海、甘 肃、四川、云南等邻近省份。藏族地区草原辽阔，江河纵横，湖泊澄静 ，天高云淡 ，美丽神 奇。 The Tibetan people are mainly distributed in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, and Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces nearby. The Tibetan area features vast grasslands, intersecting rivers and serene lakes. The plateau landscape is beautiful and mystical. 藏族是个古老的民族。藏族的古代政权称为“吐蕃 （Tǔbō） ”。早在公元 640 年，吐蕃“赞普”（意为“王”） 松赞干布就派使者到当时唐朝的都城长安求婚，娶回了聪 明美丽的文成公主。从那时开始，汉藏两族在政治、经济、文化等方面的交往便有了很大的发展。 The Tibetan ethnic group is an age -old one. Its ancient regime was called the Tubo Kingdom. As early as in 640 AD, its king Songtsen Gampo made a proposal to the Tang Dynasty by sending messengers to Chang'an (Xi'an), the capital of the Tang Dynasty, and thus married Princess Wencheng, who was smart and pretty. From then on, the Han and Tibetan nationalities have made great progress in political, economic and cultural exchanges.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 《格萨尔王传》：是藏族 人民集体创作的一部伟大的英 雄史诗。以说唱的形式描写和反映了藏族古代部落的历史，讲述了藏族英雄格萨尔王降魔驱害、造福人民的光辉事迹。 King Gesar : a great heroic epic collectively created by the Tibetan people. This epic takes a talking and singing form, depicting and reflecting on the history of ancient Tibetan tribes, narrating the glorious deeds of King Gesar, the national hero who vanquished devils and thus benefited the people.1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 025A Tibetan girl in ethnic costumes Tibetan drama performance1. 身着民族服装的藏族少女 2. 藏戏藏族人信奉藏传佛 教。最隆重的节日是藏历 元旦，每到这一天，人们都要身着盛装， 相互拜年，并到寺庙里朝拜祈福。藏历四月十五日，相传是释迦牟尼成佛和文成公主进藏的日子，各地的藏族人都要举行宗教活动，纪念这个特殊的日子。位于拉萨市西北红山上的布达拉 宫，是世界上海拔最高的宫殿群，也是一组宗教建筑，以其独特的建筑风格和珍贵的雕塑、绘画等闻名于世。 Tibetans embrace Buddhist sect known as Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism, and the grandest festival is the New Year's Day in the Tibetan calendar, when people gather in festive attire, greet each other and go to temples to worship and pray for good fortune. On April 15th in the Tibetan calendar, religious ceremonies are held to commemorate the day when Sakyamuni became Buddha and Princess Wencheng reportedly reached Tibet. The Potala Palace on the Red Hill in the northwest of Lhasa City is the complex of palaces at the highest altitude in the world, and also a set of religious architectural structures. It is well known in the world for its unique architectural style, precious sculpture, statues and paintings.　　 藏族人民热情开朗、豪爽奔放。藏族民歌抑扬顿挫， 唱时还伴以各种优美的舞蹈，其中踢踏舞、锅庄舞、弦子 舞广泛流传。藏族人有一个独特的礼仪——献哈 （hǎ） 达， 哈达是一种特制的白色长巾， 在拜访或接待尊贵的客人时，藏族人要献上洁白的哈达，以表敬意。 The Tibetan people are enthusiastic, open -minded, generous and unrestrained. Tibetan folk songs are cadenced, and are accompanied with beautiful dances. In particular, the tita dance, guozhuang dance and xianzi dance are most popular. Tibetans observe a unique etiquette — the presentation of hada, a traditional ceremonial scarf presented by Tibetan people to their exhalted hosts or distinguished guests as a token of respect. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 026藏族人的服饰很有民族特色，他们一般上身穿绸、布 做的长袖短褂，外面穿宽肥的长袍，脚穿牛皮长靴。为了 便于活动，常常将右肩或双臂露在外面，把两只袖子系在腰间。藏族男女都留发辫，男子将发辫盘在头顶，女子将头发梳成双辫或许多条小辫，披在肩上，并在发梢上佩带漂亮的饰物。 妇女们还喜欢在腰间系一条图案美丽的围裙。 Tibetan costumes have unique ethnic features. Usually the Tibetan people wear a short silk or cotton jacket with long sleeves and a pair of high leather boots, and over the jacket they add a loose gown. For convenience, they often bare the right shoulder or even both arms, tying the two sleeves around the waist. Tibetan men and women plait their hair; men coil a single plait on top of the head while women wear two plaits, or sometimes many, over the shoulders, with beautiful ornaments woven into the ends. Women also like to tie an apron with beautiful patterns around their waist. 藏族人以农牧业为主。藏族人爱喝酥 （sū） 油茶①，喜 欢吃牛羊肉和糌粑 （zānbɑ）②。 The Tibetan people mainly farm, and they love to drink butter tea①, and eat beef, mutton and tsampa②.小注解·Footnotes ① 酥油茶：藏族的饮料。 是用酥油和浓茶加工而成的。 酥油是一种类似黄油的乳制品，是从牛、羊奶中提炼的脂肪。 ① Butter tea: A kind of Tibetan drink. The tea is made of butter and strong tea, and the butter is fat refined out of the milk of yak and goats. ② 糌粑：藏族牧民传统主 食之一。“糌粑”是“炒面” 的藏语音译。它是把高原谷类作物青稞粉炒熟后，拌上酥油制成的。 ②Tsampa: One of the traditional staple foods of Tibetan herdsmen. Literally meaning "fried flour" in Tibetan language, it is fried flour of highland barley mixed with Tibetan butter. A scene to present hada Tangka1. 献哈达的场面 2. 唐卡1 2 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 027The Korean朝鲜族 朝鲜族主要居住在中国的东北三省，其中居住最集中 的地方是吉林省长白山麓的延边朝鲜族自治州和长白朝鲜 族自治县。朝鲜族聚居的地区山川秀丽，物产丰富。延边地区是中国北方著名的“水稻之乡”，那里出产的大米洁白如玉，营养丰富。 The ethnic Korean group mainly lives in Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Jilin provinces in northeast China, and the most compact communities are the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and the Changbai Korean Autonomous County near the Changbai Mountains in Jilin Province. The Korean communities have beautiful mountains and abundant produce. In particular, the Yanbian area is a well -known "land of rice" in northern China, with its rice being as white as jade and very nutritious. 朝鲜族有自己的语言、文字，杂居地区的朝鲜族通用 朝鲜语和汉语两种语言。 The Korean have their own spoken and written language, and the Korean people living in enclaves use both Korean and Chinese languages at the same time. 朝鲜族是一个能歌善舞的民族， 伽倻 （ jiāyē ）琴①弹唱、 顶水舞、扇子舞、长鼓舞②等都是他们的传统歌舞。朝鲜族 歌曲旋律流畅婉转、欢快明朗，著名的民歌《桔梗谣》 《阿 里郎》等，几乎家喻户晓，人人会唱。朝鲜族人民热爱体育运动，摔跤和踢足球是男子普遍爱好的体育活动，荡秋千和跳跳板是妇女最喜爱的娱乐和体育活动。由于足球运动普及，延边已成为全国闻名的“足球之乡”。 The Korean people are good at singing and dancing. They sing while playing a plucked stringed instrument called kayago①. Also traditional are the water -carrying dance (carrying water in a pitcher A young Korean girl in ethnic costume Seesaw jumping game1. 身着民族服装的朝鲜族少女 2. 跳跳板1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 028on the head), fan dance and long -drum dance②. Korean songs have melodious rhythms and are joyous and cheerful, and some of their famous folk songs, including The Ballad of Doraji and the Arirang , are familiar to almost everyone. The Korean people like sports. Wrestling and playing football are men's favorite sports, while women like to play on swings and seesaws. Because of the popularization of football games, Yanbian has become a renowned "land of football games" in China. 朝鲜族人比较喜欢素白色服装， 以示清洁、 干净、 朴素、 大方， 所以朝鲜族自古有 “白衣民族” 之称。 妇女穿短衣长裙， 这也是朝鲜族妇女服装的一大特色。 The Korean people like to dress in white, which is thought to be clean, simple and graceful, giving them the reputation of "an ethnic group of white clothes" since ancient times. Women wear short shirts and long skirts, and it is an outstanding feature of female costumes of the Korean ethnic group. 朝鲜族人的屋内用砖或石板铺成炕，客人来访时，要 脱鞋进屋， 坐在炕上。 朝鲜族的食品独具风味， 泡菜、 冷面、 打糕和酱汤都是他们喜欢吃的食品。 Korean homes feature kang built of bricks or slates. When a guest visits, he is expected to take off his shoes before entering the room and sitting on the kang. Korean food has special tastes, including kimchi (pickled vegetables), cold noodles, sticky rice cakes and soy sauce soup. 朝鲜族是个尊老爱幼的民族。老年人在家庭中和社会 上处处受到尊敬。 在不同的朝鲜族聚居区， 几乎都有老人节， 只是时间不同而已。 Koreans respect the old and cherish the young, and elders are esteemed both at home and in the society. The Festival of the Aged is a common festival in various communities of the Koreans, and only the dates of celebratory activities vary from one community to another.小注解·Footnotes ① 伽倻琴：朝鲜族传统弦 乐器。外形像筝，所以又称朝 鲜筝，其音色深沉而柔和。 ① Kayago: Traditional string music instrument of the Korean people, whose shape resembles the zheng (Chinese zither with 21 or 25 strings). ② 长鼓舞：长鼓是朝鲜族 的一种传统打击乐器。木质圆 筒形，中间细而实，两端粗，中间空，用绳绷皮做鼓面。长鼓舞以肩挎长鼓、 右手持鼓鞭、边跳边敲鼓的形式表演，表演时身、 鼓、 神融为一体， 有独舞、双人舞、群舞等多种。 ② Long-drum dance: Long drums are kinds of traditional percussion instruments of the Koreans. Made of wood and being in the shape of cylinder, they are thin and solid in the middle, and thick and hollow at both ends. The surface is made of tight strings. In long-drum dances, performers hold drumsticks with the right hands and beat while dancing, with the drums hung on shoulders. The performance is a fusion of performers' bodies, drums and spirit, and can be divided into solo dance, duet dance and group dance. 2 1 A family of Korean nationalityA Korean wedding 2. 朝鲜族家庭1. 朝鲜族婚礼 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 029The Dai傣族 傣族主要聚居在云南省西双版纳和德宏 等地区。那里气候温暖，雨量充足，到处有 竹林、椰树和香蕉林，是四季常青的地方。在大片的原始森林中，有很多珍禽异兽。美丽的孔雀常常在丛林中、溪水边翩翩起舞，人们因此便把傣族人生活的地方称为“孔雀之乡”。 The Dai people mainly live in Xishuangbanna and Dehong areas in Yunnan Province, Thanks to the mild climate and abundant rainfall there, this region abounds with green bamboo forests, coconut trees and banana trees everywhere throughout the year. In the vast primeval forests, there are many rare birds and unusual animals. Pretty peacocks often dance gracefully along jungle trails or beside a brook; thus, people call the place where the Dai people inhabit "the Land of Peacocks." 傣族大都信仰小乘佛教。在傣族居住的乡村里，建有 很多佛寺。一般男孩子长到八九岁时，都要到佛寺里当一 段时间的小和尚。西双版纳地区现有佛寺一百多处，这些佛寺在建筑风格上类似竹楼，层层叠叠，涂红抹彩。由于宗教的原因，傣族人民还特别喜欢塔，诸如白塔、水塔、葫芦塔、笋塔等。竹楼则是傣族人的传统民居。竹楼分为上下两层，上层住人，下层堆放杂物、关牲畜。 The Dai people mostly believe in Hinayana, so there are many Buddhist temples in their villages. Generally, a Dai boy will be sent to a temple as a monk for a period when he is eight or nine years old. Presently, there are more than 100 Buddhist temples in Xishuangbanna, which architecturally resemble storied bamboo stilt houses, one upon Dai maids in traditional costume1. 身着民族服装的傣族少女1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 030another, varying in color. Because of their religious faith, the Dai people are also especially fond of pagodas, including white pagodas, water towers (towers built over wells), gourd -shaped pagodas and bamboo shoot -shaped pagodas. The Dai people have traditionally lived in two -storied bamboo stilt houses, with the upper story for living and the lower for storage and feeding livestock. 傣族以大米和糯米为主食。 傣族男子穿无领短衫、 长裤， 大多用白布或蓝布包头。妇女们喜欢穿窄袖短上衣和长到 脚面的筒裙，一般把头发盘在头顶，再插上一把漂亮的月牙梳，有的还戴上一块花头巾。 The Dai people mainly live on rice and sticky rice. Dai men wear collarless short Chinese jackets, long trousers and white or blue headpieces. Dai women like to wear short jackets with tight sleeves and straight skirts covering the instep; they usually coil their hair on top of the head with a beautiful crescent comb, and some even wear a colorful headpiece. 傣族人的节日非常多，每到过节的时候，傣族人都要 敲起芒锣和象脚鼓①，跳起优美的孔雀舞b，庆祝节日。泼 水节是傣族一年一度的盛大节日，时间为傣历六月，是傣 历新年元旦，相当于公历的四月中旬。泼水节的清晨，男女老少沐浴后，都要换上节日盛装，到佛寺里为佛洗尘，然后互相泼洒象征吉祥如意的清水。据说，身上被泼的清小注解·Footnotes ① 象脚鼓：傣族重要的民 间乐器， 因鼓身似象脚而得名。 它用木材制作，通体中空，鼓面蒙皮，鼓身图饰多为孔雀。象脚鼓大鼓音色雄壮、浑厚，中鼓激越、昂扬，小鼓清脆、明亮。 ① Xiangjiao drum: An important folk music instrument of the Dai people, and thus named because of its resemblance to an elephant's feet. It is made of wood, hollow in the middle; its surface is covered with leather, and its body is usually decorated with the pattern of peacocks. Xiangjiao drums in the largest size give sonorous voices, those in the middle size sound loud and vigorous, and the drums in the smallest size produces ringing and clean sound. b孔雀舞：傣族代表性舞 蹈。它模仿孔雀生活嬉戏的各 种动作，按照严格的程式、固定的步法表演。其风格轻盈灵秀，情感表达细腻。傣族人民认为孔雀是一种最美、最善良的神鸟，他们以孔雀舞来表达自己的理想和愿望。著名傣族舞蹈家刀美兰和杨丽萍都擅长表演孔雀舞。 b Peacock dance: A typical dance of the Dai people. Such a dance imitates various actions of peacocks, and follows strict patterns and fixed gaits; it has a light and graceful style and expresses exquisite feelings. The Dai people think that peacocks are the most beautiful and kindest divine bird, so they express their ideals and wishes with peacock dances. Famous Dai dancers Dao Meilan and Yang Liping are both good at the performance of peacock dances.1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 031水越多，在新的一年里就 会越幸福。 The Dai people have many festivals. On every festival, the Dai people play a mang gong and a xiang jiao drum① and dance beautiful peacock dances in celebration. The Water -Sprinkling Festival, also the New Year in the Dai calendar, held in April in the Gregorian calendar, is an annual grand festival for the Dai ethnic group. In the morning, Dai people, both men and women, old and young, take a bath and dress carefully before going to the temples to wash away dust for the Buddha, and then sprinkle clean water on each other as a symbol of auspiciousness. It is believed that, the more water one is sprinkled with, the happier one will be in the forthcoming year. Bamboo stilt houses of the Dai people A scene of the Water-Sprinkling FestivalThe peacock dance performed by Yang Liping1. 傣族居住的竹楼 3. 泼水节2. 杨丽萍表演的孔雀舞 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 032The Gaoshan高山族 高山族世代居住在台 湾省， 是台湾最早的居民。 主要分布在台湾岛的山区和东部纵古平原等地，也有少数散居在福建省以及中国其他一些地区。高山族聚居的地区属热带和亚热带气候，森林覆盖面积大，资源丰富。 The Gaoshan people have lived for generations in Taiwan Province, and are the indigenous residents of the island, mainly settling in mountainous areas and the Zonggu Plain in eastern Taiwan, with a few scattered settlements around the mainland in Fujian Province and other regions. The compact communities of the Gaoshan people live in tropical and sub -tropical zones, with lush forest and abundant resources. 高山族有优美的歌谣、神话和传说。嘴琴、竹笛、鼻 箫和弓琴是他们常用的乐器。高山族无论劳动、恋爱、结 婚、 节庆、 祭祀等， 都喜欢用歌舞来表达感情。 因支系较多，表现在音乐歌舞上的风格也是丰富多彩的， 其中， 甩发舞、丰收舞等，都具有很高的艺术水平。高山族的舞蹈具有集体性的特点， 凡遇重大活动， 都有集体载歌载舞的热烈场面。在歌舞聚会时，人们堆柴点火，围火高歌豪饮。高山族人 1 民族篇 Ethnic Groups 033还非常喜欢雕刻和绘画，在他 们的住房、 乐器和生活用品上，都雕有各种美丽的图案，其中最多的是蛇身人首的图像。 The Gaoshan ethnic group has beautiful folk songs, ancient ballads, myths and legends. The zuiqin (a kind of wind musical instrument made of bamboo slices with threaded covers at both ends, played by blowing across holes), bamboo flute, bixiao (a vertical bamboo flute played with noses) and gongqin (a bow -shaped string music instrument) are commonly used. The Gaoshan people like to express their feelings through singing and dancing no matter whether at work, in love, at weddings, during festivals or while performing sacrificial ritual. The Gaoshan ethnic group can be divided into many clans, so their music and dance vary in style. In particular, their Hair -throwing Dance and Harvest Dance have reached very high artistic levels. The Gaoshan dances feature collectivity, and important occasions are accompanied with the ardent scenes of collective singing and dancing. At such musical gatherings, people make bonfires to sing and drink to their hearts' content. Also, the Gaoshan people like carving and painting; therefore, their houses, musical instruments and daily necessities are all carved with beautiful patterns, most of which are images with the body of a snake and a human head. 高山族不同的族群 有着特色各异的传统服 饰，大多色彩鲜艳。其中男子的服装有腰裙、套裙、 挑绣羽冠、 长袍等。女子有短衣长裙、围裙、Young Gaoshan girls in traditional costume A Gaoshan man in traditional costume Yamei people's Hair-throwing dance (Yamei people is a branch of the Gaoshan ethnic group)1. 身着民族服装的高山族少女 2. 身着民族服装的高山族男子 3. 雅美人 ( 高山族的一支 ) 甩发舞 32 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 034膝裤等。 除服装外， 还有许多饰物， 如冠饰、 臂饰、 脚饰等。 饰物以自然物为多，如贝珠、贝片、玻璃球、猪牙、熊牙、羽毛、兽皮、竹管、花卉等。 The Gaoshan people wear traditional clothing, most of which is brightly colored. In particular, men wear kilt -like skirts, leggings, embroidered feather hats and gowns, and women wear a short jacket, a gown, an apron and leggings. Also, they wear various ornaments, including those for the head, the arm and the foot. Most of their ornaments use natural materials, such as pearls, shells, glass balls, pigs' teeth, bears' teeth, feather, animal hide, bamboo pipes and flowers and so on. 高山族人主要从事农业生产，种植水稻、小米、芋头 和红薯，有的也以捕鱼为生。高山族的食物比较简单，以 稻米、粟米和甘薯为主食，典型食品有腌肉等，其中阿美人腌鹿肉和野猪肉别具一格。咂酒是高山族排湾人、布农人土法酿制的一种米酒。 The Gaoshan people mainly engage in farming, planting rice, millet, taro and sweet potato, but some live on fishing. They have relatively simple diets, mainly including rice, millet and sweet potato. Especially, pickled meat is one of their typical foods, and the pickled venison and pickled wild boars' meat of the Amei people (a branch of the Gaoshan ethnic group) are very unique. In addition, zajiu is a kind of rice wine brewed in a traditional way by the Paiwan and the Bunong branches of the Gaoshan people. Yamei people's wooden boats1. 雅美人用的木船1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 035 传统民俗绘画民俗篇 Folk Customs 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 036Chang'e flies to the moon Mooncakes for the Mid-autumn Festival1. 嫦娥奔月 2. 中秋节月饼 1 2中国民间自古就有“入国问禁，入乡随俗”的传统。 民俗是最贴近人们生活并世世代代锤炼和传承的文化传统。 中国是一个历史悠久、地域辽阔、人口众多的国家。在长期的发展过程中，各民族、各地区形成了自己丰富多彩的风俗习惯：有衣食住行方面的，有节庆礼仪方面的，有宗教信仰方面的，等等。这些风俗已经延续了千百年，成为不同民族各自保留的传统，其中有一些逐渐演变为中华民族共同的风俗。 China has had a tradition of respecting local folk customs since remote antiquity, and folk customs are cultural traditions that are most closely related to people's daily lives and have been developed and carried down from generation after generation. China is a country with a long history, a vast territory and a large population. In the long process of development, each ethnic group has formed various customs and habits of their own, covering clothing, food, living and transport; festive occasions; etiquette; and religious beliefs. These customs have lasted for many centuries and have evolved into the traditions of each ethnic group; some customs have gradually evolved into the common cultural heritage of the Chinese nation. 汉族是世界上最大的一个古老民族。 由于其历史悠久， 文化发达，所以风土人情更是多姿多彩，丰富异常。这里 我们主要从传统节日、吉祥图案、传统服装、属相姓氏、茶酒饮食、民间庙会等方面介绍以汉民族为主体的中华民族的一些风俗习惯。 The Han is the largest ancient ethnic group in the world. Because of its long history and rich cultural heritage, its customs and culture are more colorful and more diverse. Here, we introduce some customs and habits of the Chinese nation whose major component is the Han people, involving traditional festivals, auspicious designs, traditional costumes, Chinese zodiac signs, surnames and given names, diets, folk temple fairs, and so forth.概述 Introduction 民俗篇 Folk Customs 037Traditional Festivals传统节日 中国的传统节日从远古走来，沉淀了千百年的传统文 化。每一个节日都有它的历史渊源、独特风情和深厚广泛 的民众基础。传统节日的各种习俗反映了中华民族的传统习惯、道德观念以及对生活的美好憧憬，具有很强的内聚力和广泛的包容性。 The traditional festivals of China come from remote antiquity, and are the carrier of traditional culture that has accumulated for thousands of years. Each festival has its own historical origin, unique feature and profound populace foundation. The various customs of traditional festivals display the Chinese nation's traditional habits, moralities and its anticipation of a good life, and thus have strong cohesion and great inclusiveness. 春节、端午节、中秋节是中国的三大传统节日。除此 之外，元宵节、清明节、七夕节、重阳节、腊八节等也是 中国人所重视的节日。 The Spring Festival, the Duanwu Festival and the Mid -Autumn Festival are three major traditional festivals of China. In addition, the Lantern Festival, the Qingming Festival, the Double Seventh Festival, the Double Ninth Festival, the Laba Festival, etc. are also important festivals of the Chinese people. 春节是农历的正 (zhēnɡ) 月初一， 是中国的农历新年， 民间也叫“过年”。在中国的传统节日中，这是一个最重 要、最热闹的节日。因为过农历新年的时候，正是冬末，春季将到，所以人们就把这个节日叫“春节”。中国人过春节有很多传统习俗。从腊月（农历十二月）二十三日起，人们就开始准备过年了。在这段时间里，家家户户要大扫除，买年货，贴窗花，挂年画，写春联，蒸年糕，做好各种食品，准备辞旧迎新。春节的前夜叫“除夕”。除夕之 A Spring Festival picture produced in Yangliuqing, Tianjin, which depicts a scene of bursting of fireworks A picture of the making and eating of jiaozi on the Eve of the Chinese New Year1. 放鞭炮（天津杨柳青年画） 2. 除夕包饺子、吃饺子 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 038夜， 是家人团聚的时刻。 一家人围坐在一起， 吃一顿丰盛的年夜饭，说说笑笑，直到天亮，这叫守岁。除夕零点一过，人们还要吃饺子 ①。过了除夕就是大年初一。从初一 开始，人们要走亲戚、看朋友，互相拜年。拜年是春节的重要习俗，拜年时，大家都要说一些祝愿幸福、健康的吉祥话，孩子还能收到大人给的“压岁钱” ②。放爆竹是 春节期间最喜欢的活动。传说燃放爆竹可以驱妖除魔，所以每年除夕之夜， 到处就响起接连不断的爆竹声， 阵阵烟花，声声爆竹，给节日增添了喜庆和热闹的气氛。 Spring Festival falls on the first day of the first month in the Chinese lunar calendar, and celebrating the traditional Chinese New Year is colloquially known as "Guonian."Among all the traditional Chinese festivals, this is the most important and the most bustling. The Spring Festival gets its name as it occurs at the end of winter and at the beginning of spring. Chinese have many traditional customs relating to the Spring Festival. Since the 23rd day of the 12th lunar month, people start to prepare for the event. Every family will undertake thorough cleaning, do their Spring Festival shopping, make paper - cuts for window decorating, put up New Year pictures, write Spring Festival couplets, make New Year cakes and prepare all kinds of food to bid farewell to the old and usher in the new. The New Year's Eve is a time for happy reunions among all family members, when they sit around the table to have a sumptuous New Year's Eve dinner, talking and laughing, until daybreak, which is called "staying up to see the year out." When the bell tolls midnight on the New Year's Eve, people eat jiaozi①. The day after the New Year's Eve is just the first day of the lunar year. From that day on, people pay New Year calls on relatives and friends, which is an important custom for the Spring Festival. During the visit, people wish happiness and health to each other with auspicious words and children receive "yasui money" ② as gifts from adults. Setting off firecrackers is children's favorite activity in the Spring Festival. A legend goes that this could drive off evil spirits. From the New Year's Eve on, the continuous sound of firecrackers can be heard everywhere, adding the atmosphere of rejoicing and festivity. 尽管近几十年来的春节习俗有了很大变化，但在中国 和世界各地的炎黄子孙心中，春节永远是最重要的节日。 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 饺子：在中国传统的计 时方法中，“子时”指从夜里 11 点到 1 点的这段时间。除夕的子时正是新旧年交替的时候，人们在这时吃饺子，是取“更岁交子（新年与旧年在子时交替）”的意思。 ① Jiaozi: In the traditional timing system of China, zishi refers to the period from 23:00 to 01:00. The zishi on New Year's Eve happens to be the turning point between the old and the new year. People eat jiaozi at this moment to celebrate the alteration of the years. ② 压岁钱：春节拜年时， 长辈要将事先准备好的压岁钱 分给晚辈。据说压岁钱可以压住邪祟（suì） ，因为“岁”与 “祟”谐音，晚辈得到压岁钱就可以平平安安度过一岁。 ② Yasui money: When they are wished a Happy New Year on the Spring Festival, the seniors are supposed to distribute yasui money previously prepared to the juniors. It is said that such yasui money could oppress sui (devils) because the words "year" (sui) and devil (sui) are homophones in Chinese language, and that the juniors who receive yasui money can live through the next year in safety. 民俗篇 Folk Customs 039每当春节来临，远在外地的游子不管多忙，都会千里迢迢 赶回家，和家人团聚。　　 The Spring Festival has changed greatly these decades, but forever it is the most important festival in the minds of Chinese people both in China and in every corner of the world. On the advent of the Spring Festival each year, people far from their hometown will travel long distances to join their families no matter how busy they are. 农历五月初五， 是中国民间传统的端午节。 过端午节， 是中国人两千多年来的传统习惯，由于中国地域广大，民 族众多， 加上许多故事传说， 各地也有着不尽相同的习俗。其内容主要有：赛龙舟，吃粽子，女儿回娘家，在门上贴钟馗（Zhōnɡ Kuí） 像， 挂菖蒲、 艾草避邪， 小孩佩香囊驱瘟， 喝雄黄酒解毒等。 有些活动如赛龙舟等， 已得到新的发展，成为国际性的体育赛事。关于端午节的由来，说法很多，其中纪念屈原之说，影响最广最深。 The fifth day of the fifth month in the Chinese calendar is the traditional Duanwu Festival in China. The Duanwu Festival has a history of more than 2,000 years; due to its vast territory, a large number of ethnic groups and various tales, the customs of the Duanwu Festival vary from one place to another. Its major contents include dragon boat contests, the eating of zongzi (rice dumplings wrapped with leaves of certain plants), married daughters' visit to their mother's home, the pasting of Zhong Kui's images on doors, the hanging of flagleaf and mugwort to ward off evils, children's wearing of fragrant bags to expel pestilence, the drinking of realgar liquid for detoxification, etc. In particular, some activities, including dragon boat contests, have been further developed, and become international sports. There have been many stories about the origin of the Dragon Boat Festival, among which the most widely spread is that the festival commemorates Qu Yuan. 农历八月十五，是中 国的传统节日中秋节。按 照中国的历法， 农历七、 八、九三个月是秋季。八月是秋季中间的一个月，所以这个节日叫“中秋节”。 A picture of compound court full of the taste of the Spring Festival (couplets, lanterns, window paper cuts and so forth)1. 贴对联，挂灯笼，贴窗花，充满 年味的四合院 A gate with pasted image of Zhong Kui and hung flagleaf and mugmort2. 贴钟馗像，挂菖蒲、艾草的大 门 2 3A scene of dragon boat contest on the Duanwu Festival3. 端午节赛龙舟 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 040这也是一年中赏月最好的时节。人们把圆月看作团圆美满 的象征，所以中秋节又叫“团圆节”。中秋节这天，中国人有赏月和吃月饼的习俗，赏月时还要摆出新鲜的瓜果和圆圆的月饼等食品，一边赏月一边品尝，心里充满了秋天丰收的喜悦和家人团聚的欢乐。这时，远离家乡的游子也会仰望明月，思念故乡和亲人。 The 15th day of the 8th month in the Chinese calendar is the Mid-Autumn Festival, a traditional festival of China. In the Chinese calendar, the 7th, 8th and 9th months form the autumn season. The 8th month is the middle month of the autumn season, which is what gave this festival its name. It is the best time to enjoy the moonlight throughout the year, and people view the full moon as a symbol of reunion and happiness, so the Mid -Autumn Festival is also known as the Reunion Festival. The Chinese people have a custom of enjoying the moonlight and eating mooncakes that day. They set out fresh fruits, round mooncake and so forth, enjoying both the moonlight and the delicious food, filled with the joy of autumn harvest and family union. At that moment, those far from home would enjoy the same moonlight, yearning for their hometown and their loved ones. 农历正月十五是元宵节，也叫“上元节”“灯节”。农 历正月又称元月，古人称“夜”为“宵”，所以称这个节日 为元宵节，是春节之后的第一个重要节日。吃元宵是元宵节最重要的习俗。元宵由糯米制成，或实心，或带馅，小圆球形，人们在一年开始的第一个月圆之夜吃圆圆的元宵，就是希望家人团圆、和睦、幸福、圆圆满满。此外，赏花灯、猜灯谜 ③、舞龙、舞狮子等也是元宵节的几项重要习俗。　　 The 15th day of the first lunar month is the traditional Yuanxiao Festival (the Lantern Festival). The name comes from the fact that the first lunar month is also called yuanyue and that xiao means night. The night of the 15th day of the first lunar month is an important festival coming first after the Spring Festival. It's a traditional custom to eat yuanxiao (rice dumplings) at this event. The rice dumpling is a round ball of glutinous rice flour filled with stuffing made of sugar and different kernels. The round shape of the rice dumpling symbolizes satisfactoriness ("yuanman" in Chinese), and to eat rice dumplings on the first night with a full moon in a year is to wish that family members will remain united, harmonious, happy and satisfied. In addition, decorative lanterns, lantern riddles ③, the dragon dance, the lion dance A picture of a lantern display on the Lantern Festival A scene of the offering of sacrifices to the dead in the Qingming Festival1. 元宵灯会 2. 清明节扫墓祭祖 小注解·Footnotes ③ 猜灯谜：每逢农历正月 十五， 各家各户都要挂起彩灯。 后来，有人把谜语贴在五光十色的彩灯上供人猜。因为谜语能启迪智慧又迎合节日气氛，所以逐渐成为元宵节不可缺少的节目。 ③ Lantern riddles: Each 15th day of January in the Chinese calendar, all Chinese households hang colorful lanterns. Later, riddles are stuck on the lanterns for people to solve. Such riddles can help develop intelligence and boost festive atmosphere, hence gradually become an indispensable program for the Lantern Festival. A picture of Cowherd and Weaving Maid 3. 牛郎织女图 1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 041and so on are also important items of the customs of the Lantern Festival. 清明是中国的二十四节气之一，也是中国一个古老的 节日。清明节在农历三月（公历 4 月 5 日左右），此时， 正是春光明媚、空气洁净的季节，因此，这个节日叫“清明节”。清明节人们有扫墓祭祖和踏青插柳 ④的习俗。 Qingming (Pure Brightness) Day, one of the 24 Seasonal Division Points, is also an ancient traditional festival in China. It falls in the third lunar month or around April 5th in the solar calendar, when the spring scene is radiant and enchanting and the air is clean. On this day, people have the custom to sweep a grave, offer sacrifices to ancestors, take an outing in the countryside and insert willow twigs ④. 农历七月初七的七夕节， 是中国传统节日中最具浪漫 色彩的一个节日。相传，这个夜晚牛郎织女 ⑤在鹊桥相 会。织女是一个美丽聪明、心灵手巧的仙女，凡间的女孩们便在这天晚上乞求天上的织女能赋予她们聪慧的心灵和灵巧的双手，让自己的针织女工技法熟练，更乞求爱情婚姻的姻缘巧配，所以这个节日也被称为乞巧节、女儿节。 The Double Seventh Festival on the 7th day of the 7th month in the Chinese calendar is the most romantic festival among all the traditional ones of China, and it is a folk custom to "enjoy the scene of the Altair (Cowherd) and Vega (Weaving Maid) on the double seventh day." A story has come down 2 3 小注解·Footnotes ④ 插柳：清明节，人们把 柳枝插在屋檐下或戴在头上， 叫“插柳”。关于插柳的来历，有多种说法。一种说法是，清明节是中国三大传统鬼节之一，民间认为这天是众鬼出游找替身的时候。柳在人们的心目中有辟邪的作用，插戴柳枝可以防止鬼的侵扰，所以人们纷纷插戴柳枝祈求平安幸福。 ④ To "insert willow twigs": On the Qingming Festival, people insert willow twigs under their eaves or wear them on the head, which is known as "chaliu" in Chinese language. There are several stories about the origin of chaliu, and one of them is that the Qingming Festival is the three biggest traditional Ghosts' Days in China, and a folk tradition thinks that it is a time for ghosts to come out for a substitute. The willow is said to be able to expel evil ghosts, and the inserting and wearing of willow twigs can help prevent such evil ghosts from intrusion. So, people all insert willow twigs to seek safety and happiness. ⑤ 牛郎织女：中国古代神 话中的人物。织女是天上的仙 女， 私自与人间的牛郎结合后，不再给天帝织云锦，王母用天河将他们隔开，只准每年农历七月七日相会一次。相会时喜鹊在银河上给他们搭桥，称为鹊桥。 ⑤ Cowherd and Weaving Maid: Personae in an ancient Chinese myth. Weaving Maid is a fairy in the heavens. She stops weaving brocade clouds for the Heavenly God after she plunges herself into the embrace of Cowherd, a mortal being, so the wife of the Heavenly God separates these two with a heavenly river (namely the Milky way), allowing them to meet only on the 7th day of the 7th month each year in the Chinese calendar. When they meet, magpies form a bridge with their bodies on the river, and this bridge is known as queqiao (magpie bridge). 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 042from generation to generation that the Cowherd and Weaving Maid⑤ in the heaven meet on the magpie bridge that night. Weaving Maid is a beautiful, smart and dexterous fairy, and girls in this world pray to her that night, expecting to be defter in knitting, sewing and the like and have a happy marriage. So, this festival is also known as "Dexterousness -Begging Festival" or "Girls' Festival." 农历九月初九是重阳节。中国古代， 重阳节是一个重要的节日。这一天要举行 各种活动，如登高、赏菊、插茱萸 （zhūyú） 、吃重阳糕等。 1989 年开始，中国把每年的九月初九定为老人节，传统与现代巧妙结合，使这个古老的节日又增添了新的内容。每当佳节来临，人们都要举办各种敬老活动，祝愿老年人健康长寿。 The Chongyang (Double -Ninth) Festival falls on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. In ancient China, it used to be an important festival, which was celebrated with various activities such as mountain climbing, admiring chrysanthemums, wearing cornel (Cornus officinalis) and eating Double -Ninth cake, etc. From 1989 on, China has fixed this day each year as The Elders' Day, and new contents have been added into this ancient festival. Each Chongyang Festival, people hold various activities in honor of senior citizens, wishing them good health and longevity. 腊月最重大的节日是初八的“腊八节”。从先秦起， 腊八节人们都要祭祀祖先和神灵， 祈求丰收和吉祥。 据说， 佛教创始人释迦牟尼的成道之日也在十二月初八，因此腊八也是佛教徒的节日，又称“佛成道节”。在这天吃一种用多种米、豆、干果等熬制的腊八粥是全国各地老百姓比较普遍的习俗。　 The biggest festival in the 12th month of the Chinese calendar is the "Laba Festival" on the 8th day. As early as in the pre -Qin period, the Laba Festival had been used to offer sacrifices to ancestors and gods and pray for bumper harvests and good luck. It is said that Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, happened to gain his Buddhahood that day, hence the Laba Festival is also a festival of Buddhists. It is a common habit of the populace all over China to eat Laba porridge cooked with rice, beans, dried fruits and nuts that day. Ascending a height on the Double-Ninth Festival Porridge of the Laba Festival1. 重阳节登高 2. 腊八粥21 民俗篇 Folk Customs 043Auspicious Designs 吉祥图案 吉祥图案是指运用象征、 比拟、双关、谐音等含蓄曲 折的手法，把一些特定的事物组成具有一定吉祥寓意的图案。它的起始可上溯到商周时代，直到今天，人们都喜欢用这些吉祥图案装饰自己的房间和各种物品，以表示对幸福生活的向往，对良辰佳节的庆贺。 Auspicious designs are what put certain things into patterns with distinctly auspicious significations by means of implicative methods such as symbolization, assimilation, pun and homophony. Their origin can date back to the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and until the present, people still like to use such designs to decorate their rooms and various objects, expressing their wishes for a happy life and their celebrations for good events or festivals. 中国古代认为龙、凤凰、麒麟和龟是有灵性的动物， 因此，把它们称为“四灵”，作为祥瑞的标志。 In ancient China, people considered the dragon, the phoenix, the kylin and the tortoise as sagacious animals, calling them the "Four Deities" as the symbols of propitious omens. 龙被认为是中国最大 的神物。它是人们想象出 来的动物，长着牛头、鹿角、虾眼、鹰爪、蛇身、Stone dragon and phoenix carvings in the Eastern Qing Tombs This silk robe with the pattern of dragon embroidered is worn by the emperor on ceremonial days1. 清东陵的龙凤石雕 2. 皇帝大典时穿的龙袍 21 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 044狮尾，通身鳞甲。在人们的想象中，龙充满了无穷的神力。 几千年来，封建帝王把它当作权力和尊严的象征。普通老百姓也认为它是美德和力量的化身，是吉祥之物。因此，在中国到处都可以见到龙的形象。宫殿的屋脊上，皇家的用具上，处处刻龙、画龙；老百姓在喜庆的日子里，也要展现龙的形象。一直以来，龙都被视为中华民族的象征，全世界各地的华人都认为自己是“龙的传人”。 The dragon is considered to be the greatest divine animal in China. As a legendary creature, the dragon has an ox's head, deer's horn, shrimp's eyes, eagle's claws, snake's body and lion's tail; and its body is covered with scales. In people's imagination, the dragon is full of endless power. For thousands of years, feudal monarchs held it as the symbol of power and dignity, and the populace believed that it was the embodiment of virtue and strength, and a thing of propitious omen. Thus, the dragon can be found everywhere in China. The roofs of palaces and the furniture of royal families were all carved or drawn with dragons. On festive occasions, ordinary people put up pictures of the dragon, dance with a dragon lantern and row a dragon boat. The dragon has become the emblem of the Chinese nation, and Chinese throughout the world think of themselves as the "descendants of the dragon." 凤凰头顶美丽的羽冠，身披五彩 翎毛，它是综合了许多鸟类的特点想 象出来的瑞鸟形象。凤凰是传说中的“百鸟之王”，代表吉祥、太平和政治的清明。 1 2 民俗篇 Folk Customs 045The phoenix wears a beautiful crest and multi -colored plumage; it is an imagined auspicious bird combining features of many birds and animals. The phoenix is the "King of Birds" in Chinese lore, indicating auspiciousness, peace and good governance. 麒麟身体像鹿，遍体鳞甲，头长独角，脚像马蹄，尾 像牛尾，被认为是有德行的仁兽，历代帝王都把它看作是 太平盛世的象征。在中国还有“麒麟送子”的传说，人们一方面用麒麟象征有出息的子孙，另一方面也表示祈望早生贵子、家道繁荣的意思。 Kylin has a deer's body covered in scales, one horn on the head, horse's feet and an ox's tail. It is considered an animal of morals and benevolence, and all previous monarchs considered it symbolic of times of peace and prosperity. There is also a tale of "Kylin Sending a Son" in China: On one side, people use the kylin to symbolize promising descendents, and on the other, they wish to have a son soon and see the family flourish. 龟在四灵中是惟一存在的动物，也是动物中寿 命最长的。人们不仅把龟当成健康长寿的象征， 还认为它具有预知未来的灵性。在古代帝王的宫 殿和园林里，都有石雕或铜铸的神龟，用来象征国 运久远。 The pattern of "Auspice brought by the dragon and the phoenix" in a wedding Stone Kylin statues along the pavements in the 13 Imperial Mausoleums of the Ming Dynasty A bronze divine tortoiseA stone lion in front of the Tianan men Gate1. 婚礼上的龙凤呈祥图案 2. 明十三陵墓道两旁分列着麒麟等 石兽 4. 铜铸的神龟3. 天安门前的石狮子 3 4 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 046The tortoise is the only real animal among the four deities, and also the one enjoying the longest life span. People not only see the tortoise as a symbol of health and longevity, but also believe that it has the sagacity to foresee the future. In the imperial palaces and residences of ancient monarchs, stone or copper tortoises were erected to symbolize the longevity of the national destiny. 人们还用“百兽之王”虎表示驱妖镇宅、祛邪 避灾；用狮象征威严和喜庆；鹿与鹤表示长寿和繁 荣昌盛；羊有吉利、祥瑞的意义；蝴蝶比喻爱情和婚姻的美满、和谐；鱼比喻富裕、子孙繁盛；鸳鸯常作为夫妻恩爱、永不分离的美好象征；等等。 Also, the tiger, the "king of all the other animals," is used to expel devils and protect residences; the lion is used to symbolize stateliness and festiveness; the deer and the crane are used to stand for longevity and prosperity; the sheep has the connotation of auspiciousness and good luck; butterflies are used to indicate perfect love and marriage; fish are used to imply richness and prosperity of descendents; mandarin ducks are taken as a symbol of loyal and passionate relations between husbands and wives. 各种形态优美的植物也常常出现在吉祥图案中。 梅花、兰花、竹子、菊花被喻为“花中四君子”， 由它们组成的图案象征不畏严寒、刚直不阿的高洁品格和谦虚正直的君子风范。坚毅不拔的青松、挺拔多姿的翠竹、傲雪报春的冬梅，它们都有不畏严霜的高洁风范， 它们在岁寒中同生， 历来被誉为 “岁寒三友” ， 以此比喻忠贞的友谊和坚贞不屈的品格。牡丹是中国传统名花，它端庄妩媚，雍容华贵，在中国传统意识中被视为富贵、繁荣的象征。 Plants with various beautiful shapes often appear in auspicious designs, too. The wintersweet, the orchid, the bamboo and the chrysanthemum are called "four gentlemen of flowers," and the designs that they form symbolize straightness and fearlessness in the face of power and the style of modesty and uprightness. Likewise, pines, bamboos and wintersweets are called "Three Friends in Freezing Winter" because of their endurance of 1 2 民俗篇 Folk Customs 047low temperature, and are used to compare firm friendship and faithful character. The peony is a renowned flower, which has traditionally been viewed as a symbol of wealth, nobility and prosperity in the cultural consciousness of Chinese people because of its dignity, charm and beauty. 在汉语中，一个读音往往对应好几 个汉字，因此，利用读音的相同和相近 便可取得一定的修辞效果。如 ：瓶谐 “平” ， 表示 “平安” ； 蝙蝠和佛手谐 “福” ； 喜鹊谐 “喜” ；桂花、 桂圆谐 “贵” ；百合、柏树谐“百”。这些图案也常常被用来表示相应的吉祥意义。 In the Chinese language, one sound often corresponds to several characters; therefore, the use of homophones can have fairly good rhetoric effects. For example, a bottle may imply "peace" or "safety," a bat or a Buddha's hand can refer to "blessings," a magpie foretells a happy event, laurel flowers and longan symbolize "nobility," and lilies and cypresses express the meaning of "hundred." So, all such designs are often used to show their corresponding auspicious connotations. 吉祥图案还可以直接用吉祥汉字的各种书体来表示。 如 “寿” 字早已被图形化、 艺术化了， 成为一个吉祥符。 “寿” 字变化极为丰富， 可用多种形式表示， 字形长的叫 “长寿” ，字形圆的叫 “圆寿” ， 也有用多字来表示的， 如 “百寿图” 。 “双喜”字是双喜临门、大吉大利的意思，民间常在结婚办喜事时采用。两个“有”字组成的对称图案，意思是顺也有、倒也有，在农村常用来贴在收藏谷物的器具上，表示丰收富裕。 Auspicious designs can also take the from of auspicious Chinese characters in various styles of Chinese calligraphy. For example, the character "shou" (longevity) has been designed into devices and has long been an auspicious mark. This character varies from one style to another, and can be expressed in many ways. For instance, the pattern of a long character is known as "long shou," and that in a round shape The embroidery of mandarin ducks playing in water A design titled the "Longevity of Pine and Crane" A pattern of the "Happiness appears on the eyebrows"1. 鸳鸯戏水刺绣 2. 松鹤延年图 3. 喜上眉梢图 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 048as "round shou," and some others are composed of two or more characters, take the Pattern of A Hundred Shou, for instance. The Double -Happiness pattern means the advent of two happy events and great auspice, and is often used for weddings. The symmetrical pattern composed of two " you" (possession) means "possession anyhow," and is often stuck to utensils containing grains in the countryside, implying harvests and wealth. 可以说，中国的吉祥图案内容极其广 泛，而且很多图纹可以互相结合，一起构 成寓意更加丰富美好的图案。如， “五福捧寿 ” ： 图案中五个蝙蝠环绕一个寿字； “四 合如意” ： 四个如意从四面围拢勾连起来，象征诸事如意； “凤穿牡丹” ：牡丹与凤凰在一起，象征光明和幸福； “松鹤延年” ：松鹤都是长寿的代表，寓意延年益寿； “喜上眉梢” ：以喜鹊落在梅花树枝上比喻“喜上眉梢” ，形容喜事将到，令人高兴； “连年有余” ：借“莲”与“连” 、 “鱼”与“余”谐音，表示生活优裕、 年年富余的愿望和祝愿； “龙凤呈祥” ： 表示结婚之喜，也是对富贵、吉祥的希望和祝愿。 In a manner of speaking, such Chinese auspicious patterns have extensive contents, and many of them can match up with one another to form new designs with even more abundant and better moral significance. For example, in a pattern known as "Five Blessings and Longevity," five bats surround a Chinese character "shou"; in a pattern titled "Four Joined Ruyi," four ruyi designs connect one by one to symbolize all are satisfactory; in the pattern "Phoenix Through Peonies," peonies and phoenix together signify a bright prospect and happiness; in the "Longevity of Pine and Crane," both the pine and the crane are the signs of longevity; in the "Happiness appears on the Eyebrows," magpie on wintersweet branches are intended to mean that happy events are forthcoming; in the pattern "Surplus for Consecutive Years," it uses the homophones of "lotus" for "consecutive" and "fish" for "surplus" in Chinese language, expressing the good wish for a well - off life and surplus incomes every year; and in the "The Dragon and The Phoenix Showcase Auspice," symbols are used to express the joy of weddings, and the wish for wealth, nobility and auspice. A pattern of the "Five Blessings and Longevity"1. 五福捧寿剪纸 1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 049Twelve Symbolic Animals十二属相 中国民间有一个传统习俗，人一出生，就有一种动物 作他的属相。属相，也叫“生肖”，是中国民间传统的纪 年和计算年龄的方法。 It is a folk tradition in China to use one animal to symbolize the year of birth of a person. Shuxiang , also called shengxiao (any of the 12 animals representing the Earthly Branches), is a traditional way in China to number the years and to record a person's age. 按照世界通用的公历纪年，只要说出公历某某年就可 以了，如公元 2002 年。但中国农历的纪年法与此不同。中 国古人发明了用“干支”纪年的方法。以“甲、乙、丙、丁、戊（Wù） 、己、庚 （Gēnɡ） 、辛、壬（ Rén） 、癸（Guǐ） ” 十个 “天干” 和 “子、 丑、 寅 （ Yín） 、卯（Mǎo） 、辰 、巳（ Sì）、 午、未、申、酉（ Yǒu） 、戌（Xū） 、亥（Hài） ”十二个“地 支”按照顺序组合起来，组成 60 对纪年的符号，如：甲子、 1A pattern of 12 shengxiao animal signs1. 十二生肖剪纸 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 050 a 本命年：就是一个人 12 年一遇的与自己的属相相同的 年份，俗称“属相年”，也就是 12 岁、24 岁、36 岁、48 岁、60 岁等所在的年份。在传统习俗中，本命年常常被认为是一个不吉利的年份。每到本命年时，大人小孩都要买红腰带系上， 小孩还要穿红背心、 红裤衩，认为这样才能消灾免祸。 a The Corresponding Year: The so-called corresponding year is the year whose sign happens to be the same as the symbolic animal of a person, and it occurs at a person's ages of 12, 24, 36, 48, 60 and so on. In traditional customs, the corresponding year is usually thought an ominous time. People in their corresponding years have red belts to eliminate misfortune, and children even wear red waistcoats and red pants.乙丑、丙寅……这 60 对符号周而复始，循环使用，每一年 就有了一个纪年符号。如公历 2001 年是农历的辛巳年，公历的 2002 年是农历的壬午年。 后来， 人们又用鼠、 牛、 虎、 兔、龙、蛇、马、羊、猴、鸡、狗、猪 12 种动物来配十二地支，这就是十二生肖，也叫十二属相，从而形成了这样的搭配：子鼠、丑牛、寅虎、卯兔、辰龙、巳蛇、午马、未羊、申猴、酉鸡、戌狗、亥猪。这样，子年就是鼠年，丑年就是牛年，寅年就是虎年……于是，每个人一出生，就有一种动物作他的属相。子年出生的属鼠，丑年出生的属牛，寅年出生的属虎……属相年也被称作本命年 a。 Under the Gregorian calendar commonly used in the world, the year can be expressed by the progression since the start of the Christian era (e.g. 2002 AD). But the Chinese lunar calendar numbers the years in a different way. Ancient Chinese people invented a method to designate years by the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches. The Heavenly Stems consist of ten words: jia (Heavenly Stem One), yi (Heavenly Stem Two), bing (Heavenly Stem Three), ding (Heavenly Stem Four), wu (Heavenly Stem Five), ji (Heavenly Stem Six), geng (Heavenly Stem Seven), xin (Heavenly Stem Eight), ren (Heavenly Stem Nine), and gui (Heavenly Stem Ten). And the Earthly Branches are composed of 12 words: zi (Earthly Branch One), chou (Earthly Branch Two), yin (Earthly Branch Three), mao (Earthly Branch Four), chen (Earthly Branch Five), si (Earthly Branch Six), wu (Earthly Branch Seven), wei (Earthly Branch Eight), shen (Earthly Branch Nine), you (Earthly Branch Ten), xu (Earthly Branch Eleven), and hai (Earthly Branch Twelve). Combining each of the 10 Heavenly Stems with one of the 12 Earthly Branches in sequence creates 60 chronological symbols; for example, jiazi (Heavenly Stem One and Earthly Branch One), yichou (Heavenly Stem Two and Earthly Branch Two), bingyin (Heavenly Stem Three and Earthly Branch Three), etc. These 60 symbols are used in circles and thus each year has a chronological symbol. For example, 2001 corresponds to xinsi, 2002 to renwu in the Chinese lunar calendar. Later, people used 12 animals (rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig) to correspond to the 12 Earthly Branches, forming the 12 Symbolic Animals, namely, Earthly Branch One —Rat, Earthly Branch Two —Ox, Earthly Branch Three —Tiger, Earthly Branch Four — Rabbit, Earthly Branch Five —Dragon, Earthly Branch Six —Snake, Earthly Branch Seven —Horse, Earthly Branch Eight —Sheep, Earthly The Matching of 12 Shengxiao Signs and 12 Earthly Stems1. 十二生肖与十二地支相配图小注解·Footnotes 民俗篇 Folk Customs 051Branch Nine —Monkey, Earthly Branch Ten —Rooster, Earthly Branch Eleven —Dog, and Earthly Branch Twelve —Pig. Thus the zi year is the Year of the Rat, and the chou year is the Year of the Ox, and the yin year is the Year of the Tiger, etc …In this way, everyone has had an animal as his shuxiang since his birth. Those born in a zi year belongs to the sign of the Rat, those born in a chou year the Ox, and those in a yin year the Tiger, and so on. 现在，中国人在用公历纪年和计算年龄的同时，仍然 习惯用属相纪年和推算年龄。人们只要知道一个人大概的 年龄和他的属相， 就能推算出他的准确年龄和出生年份了。 Chinese people are still used to numbering the years and their age with shuxiang , although they have adopted the Gregorian calendar in the meantime. As long as a person's probable age and his symbolic animal are known, people can infer his exact age and year of birth. 生肖文化在中国源远流长，人们除用十二生肖纪年之 外，更赋予每个生肖不同的象征意义，如：神明（龙）、 勤勉（牛）、进取（马）、机警（鼠）、忠诚（狗）、善良（兔）、敦厚（猪）、温顺（羊）、威武（虎）、智慧( 猴）、高贵（鸡）、吉祥（蛇）。比如，马年到来，人们都会希望这一年马到成功、事事顺利；虎年出生的孩子，父母都会祝愿他虎虎生威、朝气蓬勃。可以说，生肖情结寄托着中国人对爱情、人生、健康、事业的期许，已成为团圆、和睦、安康、幸福、成功等的图腾文化象征。 The shengxiao culture has a long history in China. People not only number years with the 12 signs of shengxiao , but also endow them with different significations. For example, the dragon signifies sageness, the ox diligence, the horse ambitiousness, the rat alertness, the dog loyalty, the rabbit kindness, the pig honesty, the sheep docility, the tiger prowess, the monkey wisdom, the rooster nobility, and the snake auspiciousness. For example, when the horse year comes, people would wish everything could be accomplished instantly; and when a child is born in the tiger year, its parents would wish it be vigorous and lively. So to speak, the function of shengxiao expresses the Chinese people's expectations for love, life, health and career, and shengxiao signs themselves have become the symbols of totem culture for reunion, harmony, peace, health, happiness and successes. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 052 中国人的姓最早产生于母 系氏族社会。那时候，人们以 母亲为中心组成一个个氏族，为了相互区别，就把“姓”作为氏族的称号。同一母族又分为若干支族，每个支族又有一个自己专属的“氏”。秦汉时代，姓氏合一，成为家族系统的标 志。 The xing (a kind of surname in ancient China) of Chinese people appeared during the matriarchal society, when clans were constituted with mothers as the center and distinguished themselves from each other by using xing. The same matriarchal clan could be divided into different branches, so each of such branches had an exclusive " shi." During the Qin and Han dynasties, xing and shi were combined into one, becoming a symbol of the clan system. 姓氏的来源很多，例如：一、以母系氏族的族号为姓， 如姜、姚、姬等。二、以古代人们崇拜的生物为姓，如马、 牛、 羊、 龙等。 三、 以祖先所在国家国名为姓， 如赵、 宋、 秦、吴等。 四、 以祖先的爵位为姓， 如王、 侯等。 五、 以职业为姓，如做陶器的人姓陶等等。 Chinese people's surnames have roughly several origins as follows: 1. With the first name of the mother in the matriarchal society as the surname of a clan. Thus, many ancient surnames have a basic structural part of nü ( 女， meaning "female"), such as Jiang ( 姜 )， Yao ( 姚 ) and Ji ( 姬 ), and the Chinese character for " xing" ( 姓 ) (surname) is also composed of nü（ 女）and sheng ( 生，meaning "giving birth to"); 2. With the creatures worshipped in remote antiquity as the surname, such Names of Chinese people中国人的姓名 A family temple of the Chen Clan in Guangzhou A lineage list of the Wu Clan in Taiwan1. 广州陈家祠堂 2. 台湾吴氏族谱1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 053as Ma ( 马，horse), Niu ( 牛，cattle), Yang ( 羊，sheep), Long ( 龙， dragon), etc.; 3. With the names of states where the ancestors lived as the surname, such as Zhao ( 赵 ), Song ( 宋 ), Qin ( 秦 ), Wu ( 吴 ), etc.; 4. With the rank or title of nobility ancestors as the surname, such as Wang ( 王，prince) and Hou ( 侯，marquis); and 5. With the profession as the surname. For instance, the person who made pottery had the surname of Tao ( 陶，pottery). 中国人的姓有一个字的，也有两个字的。一个字的是 单姓，两个字的是复姓。中国到底有多少个姓，到现在也 没有准确的统计数字。宋朝时编写的《百家姓》①里收有 500 多个姓，其中 60 个是复姓。研究人员经过多年的收集和研究，发现中国人古今姓氏已超过 22,000 个。当代中国人正在使用的汉姓约有 3,500 个左右。在其中 100 个常见姓氏中， 人数最多的三个是李、 王、 张。 诸葛、 欧阳、 司徒、司马等则是中国最常见的复姓。 Chinese people's surnames consist of one or two Chinese characters. Those containing one Chinese character are known as simple surnames, and those composed of two characters are compound surnames. There is no exact statistic on how many surnames there are in China even up to now. An intellectual of the Song Dynasty wrote a book titled the Family Names of China①, which covers more than 500 surnames, including over 60 compound ones. Researchers have collected materials and researched for many years, and recently found that the surnames of the Chinese from ancient times to the present exceeded 22,000. Contemporary Chinese use about 3,500 Chinese surnames. Among the 100 commonly used surnames, the three commonest are Li ( 李 ), Wang ( 王 ) and Zhang ( 张 ), while the commonest compound surnames are Zhuge ( 诸葛 ), Ouyang( 欧阳 ), Situ ( 司徒 ) and Sima ( 司马 ). 中国人的姓名都是姓在前，名在后。名有一个字的， 也有两个字的。同一家族中的人，名字往往按辈分排列， 同辈人的名字里，会有一个相同的字。 In China, the surname comes first, and the given name follows. A given name may contain one or two characters. The given names of members of the same family or clan are arranged in accordance to the sequence of their generations, and those of members of the same generation often contain one shared character indicating the sequence of their generation. 小注解·Footnotes ①《百家姓》：一本关于 中文姓氏的书， 成书于北宋初。 原收集姓氏 411 个，后增补到504 个，其中单姓 444 个，复姓 60 个。《百家姓》的次序不是依各姓氏人口实际排列，而是讲究读来顺口，易学好记，是中国古代幼儿启蒙读物。 ①Family Names of China ： A book about the surnames of Chinese people, written in the early Northern Song Dynasty. Originally 411 surnames were collected, and later the amount increased up to 504, including 444 simple surnames and 60 compound surnames. The surnames in the Family Names of China are not arranged in accordance to the real population under each surname; instead, it follows the principle of readability and easiness to learn. So, it is start reading for children in ancient China. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 054中国人的名字往往有一定的含义，表示某种愿望。有 的名字中包含出生的地点、时间或自然现象，如京、冬、 雪等。有的名字表示希望具有某种美德，如忠、义、礼等。有的名字中有表示希望健康幸福的意思，如健、松、福等。男人的名字多用表示威武勇猛的字，如虎、龙、伟、军等。女人的名字常用表示温柔美丽的字，如凤、梅、娟等。 The given names of Chinese people often have their significations, for instance, to express certain wishes. Some given names imply the birth place, birth time or natural phenomenon at the birth, for instances, "Jing" ( 京，literally means "the capital"), "Dong" ( 冬， "winter") and "Xue" ( 雪，"snow"). Some given names express the expectation of certain virtues, such as "Zhong" ( 忠，"loyalty"), "Yi" ( 义，"righteousness") and "Li" ( 礼，"rituals"). Some given names show the wishes for health and happiness, such as "Jian" ( 健， "health"), "Song" ( 松，"pine") and "Fu" ( 福，"blessings"). Males often use given names implying mightiness and bravery, such as "Hu" ( 虎，"tiger"), "Long" ( 龙，"dragon"), "Wei" ( 伟，"greatness") and "Jun" ( 军，"armed forces"); the given names of females often contain characters indicating "gentleness" and "beauty", such as "Feng" ( 凤， "phoenix"), "Mei"( 梅，"wintersweet") and "Juan" ( 娟，"beauty" or "grace"). 现在，中国人起名已经没有古人那么多的讲究了。一 般只有小名②、大名③，名字也不一定按辈分排列了。然而， 人们给孩子取名时，越来越 注重名字的好听、有意义，尤其是要富于个性和与众不 同。 Chinese people are not as particular about their given names today, and usually they have only one xiaoming (informal name)② and one daming (formal name)③, and the given names are not necessarily in compliance to the sequence of generations. However, people increasingly pay attention to the taste, meaning and especially the individuality and uniqueness when they name a child. Origin of surnames Zhuge Village in Jinhua, Zhejiang1. 姓氏源牌 2. 浙江金华诸葛村 21 小注解·Footnotes ② 小名：小时候用的非正 式的名字，也叫乳名。 ②Xiaoming : Informal name used in childhood, also known as ruming . ③ 大名：正式的、在社会 上使用的名字。 ③Daming : Formal name used in social contact when growing up. 民俗篇 Folk Customs 055Folk Temple Fair庙会 庙会是中国民间的一种社会活动， 源于古代的神佛信仰活动。随着人们商 品交流、身心娱乐的需要，庙会在保留祭祀活动的同时，逐渐融入了集市交易和各种娱乐性活动。 The temple fair is a kind of social activity in China. Legend has it that it originated in ancient times when people offered sacrifices to the gods, and later gradually evolved into a marketplace for people to exchange products and a place for recreational activities. 庙会一般在寺庙或宫观、土地庙附近的空场上，在节 日或规定的日子举办，有的则只在每年春节期间举办。虽 然各地举办庙会的时间不同，但基本内容都差不多。庙会期间，农户、商贩带着自己生产的农产品、土特产和从各处收集来的古玩玉器、花鸟鱼虫，到庙会上进行交易；各路手艺人设摊展卖民间工艺品和特色小吃；民间艺人搭台表演歌舞曲艺……逛庙会的老百姓喜气洋洋地赶来买卖物品，观看表演，品尝小吃，热闹非常。 The temple fair, usually on the open ground in or near a temple, is held on festive or specified days. Some are held only during the Spring Festival. Temple fair activities are similar although their dates and durations vary from place to place. During a temple fair, farmers and merchants sell their farm produce, local specialties, antiques, jade articles, flowers, birds and fish; craftsmen set up their stalls to display and sell their handicrafts and specialty snacks; folk artists build a stage for singing, dance and quyi (Chinese folk art forms, including ballad singing, storytelling, comic dialogues, clapper talk, cross talk, etc.) performance. Ordinary people come to the temple fair to buy and sell A picture of a temple fair in Beijing A stilt performance in a temple fair A pinwheel1. 北京迎春庙会 2. 庙会上的高跷表演3. 风车 2 31 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 056goods, watch the performances, and sample snacks, giving the temple fair a bustling atmosphere. 现在，北京市每年春节都举办庙会。比较有名的有白 云观庙会、地坛庙会、厂甸庙会、龙潭湖庙会、隆福寺庙 会等。北京的庙会保留了许多传统习俗，像白云观庙会的骑驴逛庙会等。庙会上出售的物品也很有地方特色，像空竹 ①、风车②、刀枪剑戟 （jǐ） 等玩具。庙会上的北京小吃 既有本地传统的汉族风味，又融汇了满族和回族的民族风味，如豆汁、油茶、艾窝窝等。 Now, Beijing holds temple fairs every Spring Festival. Relatively famous temple fairs are those of the White Cloud Temple, the Altar of Earth, Changdian, Dragon Pool and the Temple of Intense Happiness. Temple fairs in Beijing have preserved many traditional customs, such as riding a donkey to stroll around the temple fair in the White Cloud Temple. Many goods sold in the temple fair have typical northern features, such as toys like kongzhu ①, pinwheel②, knife, spear, sword and halberd. Snacks in the temple fairs in Beijing are a mixture of the indigenous traditional flavor of the Han people and those of the Manchurian and Hui people, including mungbean milk, youcha (flour fried in beef fat with sugar and sesame) and aiwowo (steamed cake made of glutinous rice). 庙会在上海也有着悠久的历史，其中最有代表性的是 城隍庙会和龙华庙会。庙会上有皮影戏、西洋镜、吹糖人、 转糖盘、老上海美味小吃等。另外，河南中岳庙会、山东东岳庙会、 天津皇会、 福建莆田妈祖庙会、 温州鹤溪庙会等，都各有特色。 Temple fairs in Shanghai have a long history as well, and the most typical ones are the Chenghuang Temple Fair and the Longhua Temple Fair. On these occasions people can enjoy shadow plays, thaumatrope shows, blown -up sugar figures, zhuantangpan (turning plate of sugar), traditional tasteful snacks of Shanghai and so forth. Besides, other characteristic temple fairs include the Central Mountain Temple Fair in Henan, the Eastern Mountain Temple Fair in Shandong, the Grand Temple Fair in Tianjin, the Putian Mazu Temple Fair in Fujian, and the Hexi Temple Fair in Wenzhou. 小注解·Footnotes ① 空竹：也叫舞铃。用一 根长绳抖动舞耍一个哑铃形状 的滚轴，滚轴一般由竹子和木头制成， 中间空心， 所以叫空竹。 ① Kongzhu: Also known as wuling (dancing bell), it is a dumbbell-shaped roller made of bamboo and wood, swung with a long string when played. It is thus named because of its hollowness inside ② 风车：一种用竹棍和纸 做的玩具。 形状像扇页， 风吹过， 扇页就会转动。 ②Pinwheel: A kind of toy made of wooden stick and paper, turning like a fan when the wind blows. The play of kongzhu A scene of the Chenghuang Temple Fair in Shanghai1. 抖空竹 2. 上海城隍庙会 1 2 民俗篇 Folk Customs 057中国传统服装因年代、地域和民族的不同，在原料、 样式、 图案、 花色上都有极大差异。 过去， 不同质料、 颜色、 图案的服装往往代表着不同的社会等级和社会团体。在漫长的历史发展过程中，传统服装不断演变，呈现出丰富多彩的特点。 目前仍较常见的代表性服装有汉服、 旗袍、 长袍、中山装和唐装等。 Traditional Chinese costumes vary greatly in materials, styles, patterns and colors due to the differences of times, regions and nationalities. In the past, costumes of different materials, colors and patterns often stood for corresponding social status and social groups. In the long course of development, traditional costumes constantly evolved, showing abundance and variety. Presently, the representative Chinese costumes still commonly seen include Hanfu (Han Chinese clothing), cheongsam, changpao (long robes), sun yat -sen's suits and tangzhuang (Tang suit). 早在 2,000 多年前，汉族传统服装就奠定了其基本形 制 ：上衣下裳或衣裳连属（连在一起），上衣多为交领（衣 领交叠于胸前）、右衽 （rèn） （前襟向右掩），下裳类似 围裙的形状，这种形制对后世影响很大。 Since more than 2,000 years ago, the traditional costumes of the Han people had established its basic style: An upper garment and a lower one are connected together, the collars diagonally cross each other, with the left crossing over the right in front of the chest, and the lower garment is in the shape of an apron. This clothing style was very influential to those of later generation. 汉服是汉民族传承了数千年的传统民族服装，现代社 会的一些重要祭祀、纪念活动、民俗节日等仍能看到汉 服的身影。汉服的影响十分深远，日本、朝鲜、越南等Tranitional Costumes传统服装 A picture of Hanfu1. 汉服 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 058国服饰都不同程度地借鉴了汉服的 元 素。 As traditional ethnic costumes, Hanfu have come down for thousands of years among the Han people, and can still be seen in some important worship, commemoration and folk custom festivals in modern society. Hanfu boasts a very profound and wide influence, and the traditional costumes of Japan, Korea and Vietnam all have the traces of Hanfu to certain extents. 旗袍源自清代满族女性服装， 被誉为中国传统服装文化的典范之 一。现代旗袍一般具有以下特征：右衽大襟，纽扣在一侧，立领盘纽，摆侧开衩。用丝绸、锦缎等具有中国特色的布料做成的旗袍，线条清晰自然，紧身合体，穿在发髻高挽、 身段窈窕的女子身上，所呈现出的东方美和东方神韵，令人叹为观止。 Cheongsam originates from the traditional female dress of the Qing Dynasty, and is reputed to be one of the paragons of traditional Chinese costumes. Modern cheongsam usually has large -sized left fronts overlapping the right ones, and stiff collars, with knot buttons and slits on the sides. Cheongsam made of Chinese characteristic cloth, such as silk, fit closely to the body, showing clear and natural streamlines of the figure. Especially, when they are worn by tall and slim women with hair worn highly in buns, the Oriental beauty and charm they reveal are truly impressive. 中国男子的传统服装比较有代表性的为清代的长袍、 马褂。长袍和马褂是满族男子的服装，长袍即长大衣，一 般为立式高领、右衽，纽扣在一侧；马褂是穿在长袍外面的对襟短褂，纽扣在胸前。长袍马褂给人的感觉既庄重，又显得洒脱和舒适。 Among traditional male Chinese clothing, the representative ones are the changpao (long robes) and the magua ( jackets) of The changpao and magua A Chinese intellectual in sun yat-sen's suit A Chinese in a Tang suit on a festival2. 穿着长袍马褂的男子 3. 身着中山装的中国知识分子钱学 森先生 4. 节日里穿唐装的中国人 2 1An Oriental woman in cheongsam1. 穿旗袍的东方女子 民俗篇 Folk Customs 059male Manchurians. Changpao have high stiff collars and left fronts overlapping the right, with buttons on the sides; magua are jackets outside the changpao with fronts, with front opening and buttons in front of the chest. The changpao and magua impress people with sobriety, handsomeness and comfort. 中山装是以中国革命先行者孙中山的名字命名的男式 套装。中山装上身左右各有两个带盖子和扣子的口袋，下 身是西式长裤，它造型均衡对称，外形美观大方，穿着高 雅稳重，活动方便，既可作礼服，又可作便装。如今，不少中国知识分子仍然视中山装为自己的日常服装。 The sun yat -sen's suit is a kind of male dress in the name of Dr. Sun Yat -Sen, a pioneer of the Chinese revolution. The sun yat -sen's suit consists of an upper garment that has two pockets with covers and buttons, and a pair of western style long trousers. With a balanced and symmetrical style, it looks handsome and elegant, and the wearer feels sober and suitable. It can be used both as a ceremonial suit and a plain suit. Now, quite a few Chinese intellectuals still employ the sun yat -sen's suit as their daily outfits. 现代意义上的唐装泛指具有中国风格的服装。 当今的唐装在款式结构上有几个显著的特点：一是 立式领型。二是连袖，即袖子和衣服整体没有接缝。三是对襟，也可以是斜襟。四是盘扣。另外从面料来说，主要使用织锦面料等。2001 年上海 APEC 会议各国元首穿着唐装集体亮相，那充满浓郁民族特色的样式，给人留下了深刻的印象，掀起了一股以穿唐装为时尚的风潮。 The tangzhuang (Tang suit) in a modern sense refers to general costumes in Chinese styles. Today's tangzhuang has the following obvious features in styles and structures: 1. standing collars; 2. raglan sleeves; 3. front opening, or slanting front; 4. knot buttons; and 5. made primarily of brocade materials. In 2001, all heads of states wore tangzhuang to collectively show up in the APEC conference in Shanghai, impressing people with their strong national characteristics, and introducing a fashion of Tang suit. 4 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 060中国人喜欢喝茶， 也用茶来招待客人， 茶是人们生活中不可缺少的饮品。 Chinese people like to drink tea, and often entertain friends and guests with it. The tea is a necessity in the life of Chinese people. 中国是茶的故乡。 中国古人发现茶树后， 起初是把茶作为药用的，后来才当作饮料。中国人饮茶的历史很长，唐以后逐渐普及。 与此同时， 培育茶树和制作茶叶的技术也日益精湛。 Tea originated in China. Ancient Chinese first used tea for medicinal purposes before cultivating it as a beverage. The tea as a drink has a long history in China, and has gradually become popular since the Han and Tang Dynasties. Meanwhile, the technique to grow tea plants and produce tea has been increasingly improved. 中国茶叶按照制作方法分为绿茶、青茶（乌龙茶）、 红茶、黑茶、花茶等。各类茶中又包括许多品种。绿茶嫩 绿鲜艳，是不经过发酵的茶，著名的绿茶品种有杭州西湖龙井茶、江苏碧螺春茶、安徽黄山的毛峰茶和安徽六安 （Lù'ān） 的瓜片茶；乌龙茶是一种半发酵 （jiào） 的茶， 它既有红茶的浓鲜醇厚，又有绿茶的清爽芳香，主要产于 福建、 广东、 台湾等地， 冻顶乌龙、 武夷岩茶等享誉海内外；Chinese Tea中国茶 The tea-plucking season of Longjing, Zhejiang before the Pure Brightness Festival Manual process of tea-making1. 清明前采摘杭州西湖龙井茶 2. 手工炒茶1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 061红茶是经过发酵的茶，沏出的茶水颜色红艳，著名的红茶 有安徽的祁红和云南的滇红；黑茶属于后发酵茶，著名的有云南普洱茶等；花茶是在茶叶中加入香花熏制而成的，茉莉花茶是其代表。 As regards the methods of making tea, the Chinese variety can be classified into green tea, oolong tea, red tea, black tea and so on, as well as scented tea, each consisting of many types. Green tea looks tender, green and bright, and is processed without fermenting. Famous green tea includes Longjing tea from the region of West Lake in Hangzhou, Biluochun tea from Jiangsu, Maofeng tea from the Huangshan Mountains of Anhui Province, and Lu'an Guapian tea from Lu'an County of Anhui Province. Oolong tea is half fermented, and taste strong, fresh and mellow like red tea and fresh and fragrant like green tea. It is mainly yielded in Fujian, Guangdong, Taiwan and some other places, with Tip -frosting Oolong and Wuyi Rock Tea famous both at home and abroad. Red tea is fermented tea, with its tea water in bright red, and the famous types are Qihong from Anhui and Dianhong from Yunnan. Black tea is one fermented in a later stage, with its famous variety including Puer from Yunnan. Scented tea is made by smoking tea leaves with fragrant flowers, and the typical scented tea is jasmine tea. 喝茶不但可以止渴，还能消除疲劳，帮助消化，预防 一些疾病，长期饮茶，对人的身体健康很有益。 Tea not only quenches one's thirst, but also dispels fatigue, helps digestion and prevents some diseases. Drinking tea for a long period is quite beneficial to people's health. 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 《茶经》 ：一部关于茶 叶生产的历史、源流、生产技 术以及饮茶技艺、茶道原理的综合性论著。由中国茶道奠基人——唐朝的陆羽所著。这是中国乃至世界现存最早、最完整、最全面介绍茶的第一部专著，被誉为“茶叶百科全书”。 The Classic of Tea : A comprehensive book about the history, source and status quo of tea production, the production technique of tea, the skill of tea drinking, the fundamentals of tea art, written by Lu Yu of the Tang Dynasty, the founder of the Chinese tea art. This is the extant earliest monograph on tea in China and even in the world, with the most complete introduction to tea. It is reputed to be the "encyclopedia of tea."2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 062 喝茶能静心、静神，有助于陶冶 情操、去除杂念，这与提倡“清静、 恬淡”的东方哲学思想很合拍。中国茶艺是一门饮茶艺术，它包括：对茶叶和泉水的精选，对烹茶技术和茶具的讲究，对环境和氛围的创造等一系列内容。品茶也是中国人常见的娱乐和社交活动。 Tea can bring about the tranquilization of mind, helpful in cultivating a person's taste and relieving distracting thoughts. This conforms to the Oriental philosophy that advocates "seclusion and indifference to fame or gain," and to the thought of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism that calls on "practice through self-reflection." The Chinese tea art is really the art of tea consumption, which includes the careful selection of tea and water, the thoughtfulness about tea making process and tea utensils, and the creation of environments and atmosphere. The tasting of tea is also a kind of recreation and social activity among Chinese people. 几千年来，中华民族不但积累了大量关于茶叶种植、 生产的物质文化，更积累了丰富的有关茶的精神文化。中 华茶文化源远流长，博大精深，自古以来，茶就渗透到宫廷和民间，影响到中国的诗词、绘画、书法、宗教、医学、民俗等。茶叶和制茶、饮茶技艺、茶道精神传布海外，茶也成为世界上饮用人数最多的饮料，深受人们喜爱。 Through thousands of years, Chinese people have accumulated not only plenty of material culture about the cultivation and production of tea, but also abundant spiritual culture related to it. Thanks to its long history, the Chinese tea subculture is very profound, and has penetrated into both the court and the folk society, casting influence over the poems, paintings, calligraphy, religions, medicines and folk customs in China since remote antiquity. Consequently, tea, the technique of tea making, the skill of tea drinking and the tea art have spread abroad, and tea has become the most popular drink in the world and the favorite of many people. Tea art performance in a teahouse A purple granulated teapot1. 茶艺表演 2. 紫砂壶1 2 民俗篇 Folk Customs 063 中国有几千年酿酒的历史，是世界上酿酒最早的国家 之一。中国的名酒很多，白酒有贵州的茅台、四川的五粮 液和泸州老窖 （jiào） 、山西的汾酒、安徽的古井贡酒、 北京的二锅头；黄酒有浙江的女儿红等；啤酒有青岛啤酒、燕京啤酒；葡萄酒有张裕葡萄酒、长城干红葡萄酒等。 China has a long history of brewage, and ranks among the countries of the earliest brewing in the world. China has many famous brands of liquor, with distilled spirit including Moutai from Guizhou, Five-Grain Liquor and Luzhou Laojiao Liquor from Sichuan, Fen Liquor from Shanxi, Gujing Tribute Liquor from Anhui and Erguotou from Beijing, and with yellow rice liquor including N ü er hong from Zhejiang. In addition, beers including Tsingtao Beer and Yanjing Beer, and famous grape wines are Changyu Grape Wine, and Grape Wine of the Great Wall and so forth.Chinese Wine中国酒 Freshly steamed rice is used to brew Shaoxing yellow rice liquor A storehouse of Moutai liquor in Guizhou1. 用刚蒸出来的饭酿制浙江绍兴 黄 酒 2. 贵州茅台酒厂窖存 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 064The newlyweds proposing a toast to the guests Li Bai geting drunk1. 新郎新娘给宾客敬酒 2. 太白醉酒图 1中国自古就认为“酒以治病，酒以养老，酒以成礼”。 中国人的生活中，酒在饮食烹饪、养生保健及文化娱乐、 艺术创作等各方面都占有重要的位置。 In China, there has been an age -old tradition that "liquor can cure diseases, promote longevity and support rituals." Liquor plays an important role in all aspects of Chinese people's lives, ranging from diet, cuisine and health care to culture, recreation and artistic creation. 中国人有“无酒不成宴，无酒不成欢”之说。人们在 宴席上喝酒十分注重规矩，比如，如果想表示对长辈、上 级或客人的尊重，就应该主动举杯敬酒。中国人喝酒一般比较热闹， 大家说说笑笑， 气氛非常融洽。 凡是喜庆、 祝贺、送别、待客、祈福、交友等，人们都离不开酒。中国人举行婚礼要喝“喜酒”，孩子满月要请人喝满月酒。在一年中的几个重大节日，人们都有饮酒的习俗。如除夕要喝“年酒”，祝福新的一年合家安康；端午节喝雄黄酒以祛 （qū） 病消灾；中秋节要喝桂花酒；重阳节要喝菊花酒等。 There goes a saying among Chinese people that, "No banquet is possible without liquor, and no entertainment is possible without liquor." People attach much importance to the etiquette when they drink at a banquet. For example, they should take the initiative of toasting if they want to show their respects to the eldership, the higher - up or guests. Chinese people are usually lively when they drink, with everyone talking and laughing in a harmonious atmosphere. Liquor is a must for celebration, congratulations, farewell parties, guest entertainment, prayers for blessings, and association with friends. Chinese people have "wedding feasts" at wedding ceremonies, and invite others to a One -Month Feast when a newly born baby is one month old. On the several important festivals throughout the year, people have the habit of drinking liquor, for example, they have "New Year drink" on the Eve of the Spring Festival to wish for the peace and security of the whole family, realgar liquor on the Duanwu Festival to eliminate diseases and mishaps, laurel liquor on the Mid -autumn Festival, mum liquor on the Double -Ninth Festival, and so forth. 酒有保健功能。 中国人认为， 酒可治病， 有通血脉、 散湿气、御风寒、止腰膝痛等作用。中国人还喜欢用 中草药泡酒，这样制成的酒是药酒。 民俗篇 Folk Customs 065Liquor can play a role in health care. Chinese people hold that liquor cures diseases, and is effective in dredging blood vessels, dispelling wetness, soothing cold, and relieving pains in the waist and the knee. They like to soak Chinese medicinal herbs in liquor, and call such liquid officinal liquor. 在中国文学史和艺术史上， 很多大文学家、 大艺术家都喜欢在酣醉中创作。酒推动他们 的艺术生命走向高潮。“李白斗酒诗百篇”，酒后的李白情思飞扬；画圣吴道子，作画前必豪饮大醉才可动笔，醉后作画，挥笔即成；书圣王羲之醉时所作的《兰亭序》成为千古书法佳 作。 Many great litterateurs and artists in the history of Chinese literature and art were prone to artistic creation when they were in a drunken state, and liquor pushed their artistic life to its climax. For example, the great poet Li Bai in the Tang Dynasty could "write 100 poems after drinking wine," and the more wine he drank, the more inspired he would be; the great painter Wu Daozi would only start drawing and complete his strokes immediately when he drank enough; and the Preface to Lanting Pavilion was created by the great calligrapher Wang Xizhi while in a drunken state, and has become a calligraphic paragon through the centuries. 对中国人来说， 酒并非仅仅是美妙的饮料， 人们饮酒， 也不只是身体之需， 在一定程度上， 更是一种心灵的需要。中国人用饮酒来表现自己的生活态 度，丰富自己的人生情调。 For Chinese people, liquor is more than a wonderful beverage. They drink not only to meet the physical needs, but to satisfy their spiritual want. Chinese people drink to show their attitude toward life and enrich life -affirming sentiments. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 066民以食为天。中国人自古以来就重 视饮食。 中国菜具有历史悠久、 技艺精湛、 品类丰富、 流派众多、 风格独特的特点。 Food is the first necessity of the people. Chinese people have made much of beverage and food since remote antiquity, and Chinese cuisine features a long history, marvelous skills, rich variety, various styles and unique characteristics. 中国地域辽阔，各地物产、气候和 生活习惯不同， 人们的口味也各不相同， 这样就形成了各具地方特色的中国菜系。其中主要有八大菜系：鲁菜、川菜、粤菜、闽菜、苏菜、浙菜、湘菜、徽菜。同时， 也有四大菜系之说， 通常指鲁菜、 川菜、 粤菜和淮扬菜。 China has a vast territory, and the produce, climate and living habits vary from place to place. As a result, people from different regions have distinctive tastes, thus forming many Chinese cuisine styles with unique indigenous flavors. In particular, the eight major cuisine styles are Shandong cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Guangdong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Hunan cuisine and Anhui cuisine. Meanwhile, there is also the parlance of four cuisine styles, which are usually Shandong cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Guangdong cuisine and Huai -Yang cuisine. 中国菜不但花样多， 而且讲究色、 香、 味、 形俱佳。 “色” 指菜的颜色 ； “香” 指肉、 鱼、 菜、 果的香气 ； “味” 指咸、 甜、 酸、辣的味道；“形”指装在盘子里的菜肴的形状。此外，中国菜也讲究“意”和“养”， “意”指菜肴可代表的意境，如古时候，人们在赶考的时候要吃红色鲤鱼，意为鲤鱼跳龙门；“养”指丰富的营养价值和药用性。Chinese Cuisine中国菜 Cooks preparing dishes in a kitchen The Palace Cuisine is recommended by the well recongnized chef Martin Yan The hot pot of Sichuan cuisine1. 厨房大师傅做菜的场景 2. 世界名厨甄文达推介北京宫廷菜 3. 川菜火锅1 民俗篇 Folk Customs 067Chinese cuisine is not only abundant in variety, but is also diverse in color, scent, taste, and design. Color refers to the color of dishes; scent to the pleasant smell of meat, fish, vegetables and fruits; taste to the taste of salt, sweetness, tartness and hotness; and design to the shape of cuisine on the plate. Besides, Chinese cuisine is particular about "signification," "nutrition" and "officinal value"; for example, ancient people would have red carps when they were going to take part in an imperial civil examination, which suggested that they would have a promising future, just like a carp jumping over a mysterious gate and joining the rank of dragons. 中国菜在选料、刀工、火候和调味四个方面都很讲究。 中国菜的选材非常丰富，有一句俗语称： “山中走兽云中燕， 陆地牛羊海底鲜。”几乎所有能吃的东西，都可以作为中国菜的材料。中国菜刀工的主要工具是菜刀和砧（ zhēn）板， 可将原料切成片、丝、条、块、丁、粒、糜等形状。中国菜烹调方法非常多，有凉拌、炒、蒸、煮、煎、炸、焖、焗、炖、煨、烧等几十种。中国菜在制作过程中还十分注意火候。此外，中国菜的调料也很讲究，调味品的不同品种和搭配是形成地方风味菜肴的主要原因之一。 常用的调料品有：酱油、豆豉（chǐ） 、辣椒、胡椒、花椒、味精、生粉、醋、白糖、 酒、生姜、蒜片、麻油等几十种。 Chinese cuisine is particular about the selection of materials, the skill of cutting, the duration and degree of heating, and the seasoning. Chinese cuisine has a great range of materials, and almost all edible things can be the materials of Chinese cuisine. The major 小知识· Small Encyclopedia 各地名菜：山东菜口味偏 于咸鲜，如“蟹黄海参”；四 川菜的特点是麻、辣，如“麻婆豆腐”；江苏菜咸甜适中，如 “南京板鸭” ；广东菜以 “生、猛、鲜”为主，如“白切鸡”；浙江菜清鲜脆嫩，如“西湖醋鱼”；福建菜味道清鲜，如“佛跳墙”；酸辣、鲜香是湖南菜的特点，如“麻辣子鸡”；安徽菜中最有名的是用山珍野味做的“雪冬烧山鸡”。 Famous Dishes in China: Shandong cuisine features saltiness and freshness, such as "the ovary and digestive glands of crabs and sea cucumber"; Sichuan cuisine is hot, spicy and acidic, with its famous "peppery hot bean curd"; Jiangsu cuisine is moderately salty and sweet, and one of its famous dishes is "Nanjing pressed duck"; Guangdong cuisine features both exquisite, plentiful and varied fresh raw materials, with famous dishes like "white cut chicken"; Zhejiang cuisine is renowned for its freshness, tenderness and crispiness, and its famous dishes include "fish of the West Lake in vinegar gravy"; Fujian cuisine tastes light and fresh, such as its trademark dish called "Buddha jumps over the wall"; Hunan cuisine features acidic, hot, fresh and fragrant tastes, and one example is its "chicken with chili and pepper"; and for Anhui cuisine, the most famous dishes are those made of the choicest delicacies of mountain and wilderness, for example, the "braised chicken with potherb mustard and winter subterranean stem of bamboo".2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 068cutting tools of Chinese cooks are the knife and the chopping block, which can be used to cut materials into slices, threads, strips, larger cubes, smaller cubes, granules, paste and so on. The gastronomic methods of Chinese cuisine number in the tens, including mixing without being heated, stir -frying, steaming, stewing and so forth, and attach much importance to the duration and degree of heating. In addition, Chinese cuisine is very particular about seasoning, and the variety and different formula of seasoning are one of the major facets of various local flavors. The common fixings are soy sauce, lobster sauce, all kinds of pepper, monosodium glutamate, starch, vinegar, white sugar, liquor, ginger, garlic, sesame oil and so on. 中国各地都有自己的代表菜品。如今，各地的菜系又 处于大的融合之中。到北京、上海、广州等大城市，可以 吃到全中国几乎所有地方的名菜。而中餐馆更是遍及世界各个角落，受到各国人民的欢迎与喜爱。 All regions in China have their own representative local cuisine, and these cuisine styles from all places are now integrating with each other. In metropolises such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, one can taste famous cuisines from all over China. Furthermore, Chinese restaurants can be seen in every corner of the world, and are welcomed and loved by people from all countries. Guangdong cuisine is varied and exquisite Roast ducks made by the Quanjude Restaurant in Beijing1. 广东菜款式多样 2. 北京全聚德烤鸭1 2 小知识· Small Encyclopedia 北京烤鸭：具有世界声誉 的北京著名菜式。用果木炭火 烤制而成，鸭肉色泽红润，肥而不腻。 北京烤鸭享誉海内外，历史悠久， 距今已经 1600 多年，是清代宫廷御菜。以北京前门大街的全聚德饭店与便宜坊饭店的烤鸭最为著名。 Roast Duck: The roast duck is a world famous dish of Beijing. Roasted with the charcoal made of fruit tree wood, it looks red and tastes fat but not greasy. Roast duck of Beijing has a history of more than 160 years and is famous both at home and abroad, and used to be an important main course of the imperial diet. Now, the most famous roast ducks are those made by the Quanjude Restaurant in the Qianmen Street and the Bianyifang Restaurant, both in Beijing. 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 069民族篇传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 程门立雪 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 070Tasting the decoction, one of the Twenty- four stories about Filial Piety1. 二十四孝之亲尝汤药 传统美德是中华民族宝贵的精神财富，直到今天，仍 然具有积极的意义。 可以说， 中国在漫长的历史发展过程中， 历经磨难，却能始终自立于世界民族之林，传统美德起到了重要的作用。 它的价值已被全世界越来越多的人所认同，并在人类文明进程中产生着积极的影响。 Traditional virtues are the precious spiritual treasure of the Chinese nation, and still have a positive significance today. In a manner of speaking, the cream of traditional virtues have played an important role for China's survival over the long test of history and stand as a nation in the world the test of time. Their values have been recognized by more and more people in the world, playing a positive role in the course of human civilizations. 中国是举世闻名的礼仪之邦。千百年来，中华民族创 造了光辉灿烂的历史和文化，同时也形成了自己的道德观 念。早在两千多年前，古人就提出了“礼、义、廉、耻”的道德观，到了宋代，又有了以“孝、悌、忠、信、礼、义、廉、耻”为内容的“八德”，其中的精华部分，对社会的发展和进步起到了积极的促进作用。历史的长期积淀使得中华民族传统美德具有了深刻而丰富的内涵。 China is a country world -famous for its comities. For centuries, the Chinese have created brilliant history and culture, and meanwhile formed their own moral code. As early as more than 2,000 years ago, ancient Chinese people had developed the morality about the "sense of propriety, righteousness, cleanness and shamefulness." By the Song Dynasty, the concept of "eight virtues" was formed, promoting "filial piety, solicitude to younger brothers, loyalty, sincerity, propriety, righteousness, cleanness and the sense of shamefulness." Its quintessence had played an important role in social development and progress. The long -term accumulation of history has endowed the traditional virtues of the Chinese nation with profound and rich contents.概述 Introduction 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 071Patriotic Sentiments爱国情怀 爱国情怀是指对祖国的深厚感情和信念，是中华民族 评价一个人的行为和道德水准的重要尺度。 Patriotic sentiments refer to the profound feelings and the belief in the motherland, and is an important criterion for the Chinese nation to evaluate a person's conduct and moral level. 中国人的爱国情怀虽然在不同的历史时期有着不同的 含义和特点，但也具有共同的内容。它包括：热爱国土和 家乡；热爱祖国和人民；尊重民族的传统习惯和共同语言；珍视祖国的光荣历史；具有民族自尊心和自豪感；自觉维护民族团结和国家统一；保卫祖国，维护祖国尊严，敢于同一切外来敌人作斗争；关心祖国的前途和命运，并为祖国的繁荣富强而努力奋斗；等。“天下兴亡，匹夫有责”是千百年来中国人共同的信念。 Although the Chinese people's patriotic sentiments have different contents and features in different historical periods, they unequivocally include loving the homeland, hometown and the people, respecting the traditional customs and common languages of the nation, cherishing China's glorious history, having national self -esteem and pride, safeguarding national unity and unification, defending the motherland and national dignity and fighting against all external enemies, caring for future and fate of the motherland, and working hard for the prosperity and strength of the country. "Even the humblest man is responsible for the fate of his country" has been a common motto of the Chinese people for thousands of years. 中华民族的爱国精神代代相传。宋代抗金英雄岳飞， 一生精忠报国；明代爱国志士郑成功亲率战舰，一举收复 了被荷兰殖民者侵占了 38 年的台湾；清代的政治家林则徐，为维护国家和民族的尊严，下令收缴英、美商人输入中国的鸦片，并当众销毁；日本帝国主义侵占中国后，全中国人民奋起抗战，终于取得了抗日战争的全面胜利；许多著名的科学家如钱学森、李四光等，在祖国需要的时候，放 The statue of Yue Fei, with the inscription above saying "Return My Lands" Zheng Chenggong's recovering Taiwan1. 抗金英雄岳飞像 2. 郑成功收复台湾图 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 072弃国外种种优厚待遇，毅然回国效力；侨 居海外的广大华侨，为祖国的发展强大贡献力量， 表现出赤诚的爱国、 爱乡之情…… The patriotic spirit of the Chinese nation has been passed on from generation to generation. Yue Fei of the Song Dynasty served his motherland with selfless loyalty all his life. Zheng Chenggong, a patriotic person in the Ming Dynasty, led warships to recover Taiwan at the first attempt after it had been occupied by Dutch colonists for 38 years. Lin Zexu, a statesman of the Qing Dynasty, in order to defend national dignity, gave orders to confiscate and burn in public the opium imported into China by English and American businessmen. After Japanese imperialists invaded China, the Chinese people rose up against them and ultimately won the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression. Many famous scholars, such as Qian Xuesen and Li Siguang, gave up an easy life in foreign countries to return home to resolutely serve China when the motherland needed them. Many overseas Chinese contribute their efforts to the development and strength of the motherland, showing their sincere love for their homeland and hometown. 爱国精神是一种伟大的凝聚力和向心力。当出现民族 纷争和国家分裂的局面时， 人们总能在爱国精神的影响下， 从国家和民族大义出发，维护团结和统一；在遭受外敌入侵的危难时刻，各族人民总能在爱国大旗的感召下，团结对外，奋起反抗，保卫国家的独立和尊严；在发展经济建设的年代里， 海内外的炎黄子孙总能在爱国精神的激励下，为中华的腾飞群策群力，共同奋斗。 Patriotic spirit is a strong cohesive force. When the country has disputes between ethnic groups or is split, people are always motivated by their patriotic spirit to defend national unity and unification from the overall interests of the state and the righteous cause of the Chinese nation. At a dangerous and adverse moment of external threat, all ethnic groups, under the flag of patriotism, can always rise up in unity to resist the aggression and safeguard the independence and dignity of the country. In the time of economic development, all Chinese at home and abroad can always make joint efforts for the betterment of the Chinese nation under the inspiration of patriotic enthusiasm. 爱国情怀也是催人奋进的强大精神力量。它把个人和 祖国的命运紧紧地联系在一起，鼓舞着人们为祖国和人民 建功立业。 Patriotic sentiments are also a strong spiritual power to impel the advancement of individuals. They link closely the fate of an individual to that of the country and inspire people to render meritorious service and carve out a distinguished career for the people and the country. Lin Zexue's destroying opium in Humen The Monument to the People's Heroes1. 林则徐虎门销烟浮雕 2. 人民英雄纪念碑1 2 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 0731The Advocating of Integrity崇尚操守 “操守” 指坚持真理、 坚贞不屈、 廉洁正直的优秀品质。 中华民族自古以来就非常看重人的品德，把人格的尊严和 独立看得比生命还重要。古代著名思想家孟子曾把“富贵不能淫，贫贱不能移，威武不能屈” （富贵时不放纵自己，贫贱时不改变志向，在权势的威逼压迫下不屈服）视为做人的最高道德标准。 中国儒学主张 “杀身成仁， 舍生取义” ，宁愿牺牲自己的生命， 也要成就自己的仁德， 也要保全正义。古往今来， 无数华夏儿女， 以自己的崇高人格甚至宝贵生命，谱写了民族精神的灿烂诗篇。 Integrity refers to such good virtues as upholding the truth, faithfulness and never yielding, honesty and uprightness. Since ancient times, the Chinese nation has made much of a person's moral integrity, and even considered personal dignity and independence more important than life. The great ideologist Mencius of ancient times considered it the highest moral standard not to be corrupted by riches or honors, not to depart from principle despite poverty or humble origins, and not to submit to force or threat. The Confucianism of China advocates "sacrificing one's life for the sake of benevolence and righteousness," preferring to die in order to preserve one's virtues and justice. Through the ages, numerous outstanding Chinese have showcased this national ethos with their sublime personalities, even at the cost of their life. 东汉时，汉光武帝刘秀姐姐的家奴杀了人，地方官董 宣依法处死了凶手。刘秀偏信姐姐的一面之词，下令把董 宣处死。董宣据理申辩，毫不屈服。刘秀自知理亏，就让董宣给他姐姐叩头赔礼了事。董宣坚决不肯。刘秀让人按下他的头，董宣以手撑地，宁死也不低头。 In the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD), a family slave of Emperor Wudi Liu Xiu's elder sister committed homicide, and Dong Xuan, a county magistrate of Luoyang, executed the murderer by law. Liu Xiu was partial to his elder sister, and ordered to put Dong to death. Dong argued with the emperor, not to submit to force. The emperor knew that he himself was in the wrong, so he attempted to A portrait of Mencius1. 孟子像 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 074resolve the matter by ordering Dong Xuan to kowtow and apologize to his sister. However, Dong refused to yield. Then, Liu Xiu ordered his guards to force Dong's head down to the ground, but Dong used his arms to resist and refused to obey even in the face of death. 南宋民族英雄文天祥，在抗击元军时不幸被俘。面对 敌人的威胁利诱和残酷折磨，他宁死不屈，从容就义。他 被俘后写下的诗句“人生自古谁无死，留取丹心照汗青”，激励了一代又一代的爱国志士。 Wen Tianxiang, a national hero in the Southern Song Dynasty (1127 -1279 AD), was unfortunately captured when fighting against the Yuan Dynasty (1271 -1368 AD) troops. Despite the alternate use of cajolery and cruel torture to force him to submit, Wen Tianxiang refused and eventually went to his death unflinchingly. The lines he wrote after being captured — "No one can live forever; let me die with a loyal heart shining in the pages of history" —has inspired patriotic people of ideals and integrity. 抗日战争期间，中华民族千千万万的优秀儿女，面对 强敌，奋起抗争，谱写了一曲曲惊天动地的英雄壮歌：八 位抗日女战士，在身负重伤，打完最后一颗子弹后，毫无惧色地跳进了滔滔江水；五名八路军士兵，英勇抵抗日本侵略军， 在无路可退时， 宁可跳下峭壁悬崖， 也绝不投降…… In the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, many Chinese showed great heroism against strong enemies. In one case, eight women soldiers, although seriously wounded, continued to fight until they ran out of ammunition and then jumped into an adjacent river without fear. Five soldiers of the Eight -Route Army bravely resisted a Japanese advance, and then, with no way to retreat, leapt off a precipice rather than surrender. 千百年来，坚持气节操守一直为上至帝王将相下至普 通百姓所崇尚和追求。历代有识有为之士，都自觉地从先 辈的高尚气节中汲取精神营养，用以坚定自己的信仰和追求，历练自己的情操和品格。 For centuries, the adherence to integrity has been a pursuit of Chinese people from emperors and high officials to the common populace, and all insightful people of different generations have voluntarily absorbed spiritual nutrition from the sublime integrity of their predecessors to strengthen their own beliefs and pursuit, and improve their own integrity and characters.The portrait of Wen Tianxiang on a stone monument1. 文天祥石碑像 A painting of eight heroines throwing themselves into a riverA painting of five heroes in the Langya Mountain 3. 八女投江2. 狼牙山五壮士 1 2 3 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 075尊敬老人， 爱护儿童是中华民族的优良传统。 几千年来， 人们一直把尊老爱幼看作一种社会责任和行为规范。战国 时期的孟子就曾说过：“老吾老以及人之老，幼吾幼以及人之幼。”告诫人们要像尊敬自己的老人一样尊敬别人的老人，像爱护自己的孩子一样爱护别人的孩子。 It is a fine tradition of the Chinese nation to respect the aged and love the young. For thousands of years, people have considered it a social responsibility and the code of conduct to respect the aged and care for the young. Mencius in the Warring States Period (475 -221 BC) said that one should respect the elderly relatives of other people as one's own, and take good care of others' children as one's own. 中国有句古语：“百善孝为先。”意思是，孝敬父母 是各种美德中占第一位的。一个人如果连自己的父母都不 孝敬，就很难想象他会遵纪守法，热爱祖国和人民。 An old Chinese saying says, "Filial piety surpasses all the other virtues." It would be unimaginable that a person who shows no filial piety to his parents would abide by laws and love his homeland and people. 孔子的弟子子路非常孝顺，小时候家境贫困，经常自 己用野菜充饥，却从百里外的地方买米背回家孝敬父母。 早在汉朝时，政府就曾多次发布命令，提倡、奖励孝敬老人的行为。当时政府发给 70 岁以上的老人一种拐杖，用这种拐杖的老人，在社会上可以得到特殊的优待和照顾。汉文帝的母亲生病时， 文帝每次都要亲自尝过汤药的冷热后，才端给母亲。东汉时有个叫黄香的人，从小孝敬父亲，为了让父亲睡得舒服，他夏天用扇子为父亲扇凉席子，冬天用身体为父亲暖温被窝。清朝康熙、乾隆年间，都曾多次Respecting the Aged and Caring for the Young尊老爱幼 Offering birthday felicitations to the old in a traditional way1. 给老人拜寿1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 076举办过 “千叟 (sǒu) 宴” ， 将高寿老人请到京城， 设宴庆寿。 Zilu, a disciple of Confucius, displayed deep filial affection to his parents. Born in a poor family, he often fed himself with wild potherbs, but carried rice home from a hundred li away for his parents. As early as in the Han Dynasty, the government issued many orders advocating, encouraging and rewarding behavior related to treating the old with filial respect. At that time, the government distributed a kind of walking stick to those over 70, and those with the stick could get special treatment and care. When the mother of Emperor Wendi of the Han Dynasty (206 BC -220 AD) was ill, the emperor tasted the decoction of medicinal ingredients in person each time before he carried it to his mother. In the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD), Huang Xiang treated his father with filial respect from his childhood. In order to let his father sleep more comfortably, he cooled the old man's sleeping mat with a fan in summer and warmed the quilt with his own body in winter. In the Kangxi and Qianlong periods of the Qing Dynasty (1644 -1911 AD), thousands of elderly men were invited by the emperor to the grand imperial banquet in the capital. 中国人对后代的关怀爱护是爱中有教，慈中有严，包 含着强烈的道德责任感。 中国有句古话： “养不教， 父之过； 教不严，师之惰。”意思是说，生养孩子如果不好好教育，A painting telling the story "Mencius' Mother Moved Three Times" The Elder's Day and the Children's Day in China demonstrate the fine moral teaching of respecting the aged and loving the young 1. 孟母三迁图 2. 中国有法定的“老人节”和“儿 童节”，继承和发扬尊老爱幼的 道德教育 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 077这是父亲的过错；教育学生不严格要求，这就说明老师太 懒惰了。在中国的家庭中，做父母的会为子女的成长提供尽可能有利的条件，同时希望通过自身的良好行为和持续不断的教育，使子女成为品德高尚、对家庭和社会都有积极意义的人。孟子小的时候，母亲担心住家周围杂乱的环境对他的成长不利， 连续搬家三次， 直到把家搬至学校旁边，孟母才放下心来。家庭教育历来为中国人所重视。古人留下了大量有关教育子女的著作，都蕴含着中国人对子女最真切的爱护和期望。 Chinese people's solicitude for their descendents is to educate with love and discipline with tolerance, embodying a strong sense of moral responsibility. An old Chinese saying goes, "Feeding without teaching, the father should be responsible for his fault; teaching without strictness, the teacher would be blamed for his laziness." In a Chinese family, parents would try their best to provide favorable conditions for their children's growth, and meanwhile expect their children, through their own good behaviors and continuous education, to become noble - minded contributing members both to the family and the society. When Mencius was young, his mother was afraid that the chaotic living environment would have a negative impact on his growth, and thus moved three times, until they settled down near a school. Chinese people have valued family education since remote antiquity. A number of books on educating children left by ancient men have embodied Chinese people's earnest solicitude and expectation for their children. 尊老爱幼的传统在当代得到了继承和发扬。现在，中 国的老人和儿童都有法定的节日：农历九月初九的“老人 节” 和公历六月一日的 “儿童节” 。 尊老爱幼这种传统美德，保证了家庭的和睦和社会的稳定，也为中华民族繁衍发展提供了坚实的社会基础。 The tradition of respecting the old and caring for the young has been carried forward in modern times. At present, the old and the young in China have their own legal holidays — the Elder's Day on the ninth day of the ninth month of Chinese calendar and the Children's Day on the first day of the sixth month of Gregorian calendar. The traditional virtue of respecting the old and caring for the young has guaranteed the harmony of families and the stability of the society, and meanwhile provided a firm social foundation for the multiplication and development of the Chinese nation. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 078Honoring the Teacher and Stressing Education尊师重教 重视教育，尊敬师长，在中国有着悠久的传统。自古 以来，中华民族都把教育放在十分重要的地位。中国第一 部教育学专著《学记》中就提出了“教学为先”的思想，认为国家的首要任务就是教育。早在周代，国家就按行政区划， 设立了不同规模、 不同层次的学校， 由官员兼任教师。到了春秋时期，孔子在他的家乡开办了私学，并提出人无论贵贱贫富，都有受教育的权利。 It is a centuries -old tradition in China to attach importance to education and respect the teacher. Since ancient times, the Chinese nation has taken education as a priority. In China's first monograph on education — the Record of Learning — an ideal of "education first" was proposed, which holds that the prime task of a state is education. As early as in the Zhou Dynasty more than 3,000 years ago, the government established schools of different scales at different levels according to administrative divisions, and officials were appointed as part-time teachers. In the Spring and Autumn Period (770 -476 BC), Confucius opened a private school in his hometown, and put forward The Confucian Temple of Beijing A private school of old China1. 北京的孔庙 2. 中国旧私塾 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 079the idea that any person, whether of high or low social status, poor or rich, was entitled to education. 由于教育得到重视， 在中国， 读书人有较高的社会地位， 有知识、有文化的人非常受人尊重。自古以来，无论贵族 还是百姓，无论富人还是穷人，都千方百计地让子女上学读书，掌握知识。 Since great importance is attached to education, intellectuals in China enjoy high social status, and highly literate men are respected. Since ancient times, people at any level of society, whether they belong to the nobility or the general populace, rich or poor, have tried by every means to send their children to school.　 对教育的重视，决定了教师的地位。而同时，在中国 传统思想中，对教师也有相当高的要求，这也是人们尊师 的原因之一。汉代儒学家董仲舒认为，一个合格的教师既要有渊博的知识、良好的教法，又要有优秀的品行。 The importance attached to education determines the status of the teacher. Meanwhile, traditional Chinese values have set up considerably high standards for teachers, and this is one of the reasons why teachers are highly respected. Dong Zhongshu, a Confucian of the Han Dynasty, argued that a qualified teacher must have profound knowledge, good teaching methods and good moral ethic. 中国民间有许多尊师的说法。如“尊师不论贵贱贫 富” “一日为师，终身为父”等等。自古以来，从百姓到 皇帝都十分敬重教师。孔子的学生子贡，聪颖好学。一次， 有人贬低孔子，子贡非常气愤，他当即以房子为喻，说老师的围墙高数十丈，屋内富丽堂皇，不是一般人看得到的，而自己不过只有肩高的围墙，一眼就可望尽。宋代杨时与游酢（ Yóu zuò）去拜 会当时著名的理学家程颐。程颐正在闭目养神，杨时、游酢二人便恭敬地站在门外，等了很长时间。程颐醒来，门外已雪深一尺。后人以“程门立雪”作为尊师重教的范例。在北京的孔庙里，有 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 080清代 13 位皇帝为孔子题写的牌匾，表达了帝王们 对这位古代伟大教育家的景仰。 In China, there are many folk sayings about respecting the teacher. For example, "The teacher, no matter whether of distinguished or humble origin, rich or poor, should be respected;" and "A tutor for a day is a father for a lifetime." And since ancient times, people from the emperor down to the lowest subject have all shown great respect for the teacher. For instance, Zigong was a smart and studious disciple of Confucius, who once became angry at somebody who denigrated Confucius. Immediately he protested by comparing the acquirement of knowledge with houses, saying that his master's bounding wall was tens of zhang (three - tenths zhang equates one meter) high, but the splendor inside the house was unseen by ordinary people, and his bounding wall was merely at the height of shoulders, and one could have a full sight of it with one glance. Once in the Song Dynasty, Yang Shi and You Zuo paid a visit to Cheng Yi, a famous Neo -Confucian at that time. Cheng happened to be having a rest by closing his eyes at that moment, so both Yang and You stood aside respectfully, waiting for a long time. When Cheng woke up, the snow outdoors had been as thick as more than one third meters. Later generations take "standing in the snow at the door of Cheng" as an example of respecting the teacher and the Dao. In the Confucian Temple of Beijing, there are boards inscribed with characters written by 13 emperors of the Qing Dynasty, showing imperial respect and admiration for this great educator of ancient China. 在中国，尊敬老师已成为一种源远流长的社会风尚， 对老师的尊重，表现在社会生活的方方面面。教师见君王 可以免掉许多礼节，当官的见到老师也要躬身下拜。人们称老师为“恩师”“先生”，在日常生活中以师为先，以师为尊。现在，中国还把每年的 9 月 10 日定为教师节，以表达对教师的尊重。 In China, respecting the teacher has become a long -standing social norm, and respect for the teacher can be seen in all aspects of social life. Imperial tutors could be excused from etiquette when meeting the emperor, and officials were expected to bow down when meeting their teachers. People call the teacher "Honorable Master" or "Sir," and give them respect and priority in daily life. Now, China has a Teachers' Day on September 10 in order to demonstrate public esteem for them. Hope Primary School in China1. 社会各界捐建的希望小学 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 081勤劳，要求人们勤奋、努力、不怕辛苦，强调用自己 的劳动创造价值；俭朴， 则要求人们节制自己的生活欲望， 约束自己的消费行为，俭约生活，节约用钱。中国人信奉一个朴素的道理：小到个人、家庭，大到民族、国家，凡是勤劳、俭朴的就能兴旺发达，凡是懒惰、浪费的就会破败灭亡。自古以来，中国人就尊重劳动，珍惜一切物质和劳动成果，并把勤劳俭朴视为一种美德。 The Chinese people believe in a simple truth: diligence and frugality can bring prosperity, either for an individual or a family, a nation or a state; laziness and wastefulness can only lead to decline and destruction. Since ancient times, the Chinese people have highly valued labor, treasured the fruits of labor, and considered it a virtue to be diligent and frugal. 早在人类的童年时期，中华民族的祖先就用自己勤劳 的双手改造自然、创造文明。炼石补天的女娲 （Nǚwā） ， 教人种庄稼的后稷 （ Hòujì） ， 治理洪水的大禹 （Dàyǔ） …… 都是通过辛勤劳动为民造福的英雄。随着历史的发展，勤 劳的美德成了中华民族的传家宝， 无论做工、 务农还是经商， 人们都勤勤恳恳地努力劳作，并常常用 “勤俭持家远， 耕读继世长” “遍地是黄金， 单等勤劳人”等信条来告诫后人：只有通过辛勤的劳动， 才能开创美好的生活。 As early as the dawn of mankind, the ancestors of the Chinese nation had begun to transform nature and create civilizations with their hardworking hands. In the legends, N ü wa melted down stones to patch up the sky, Houji taught people to grow crops and Dayu led others to curb floods; all were heroes who brought Industry and Frugality勤劳俭朴 Chinese people work hard and practise frugality for family well-being and social wealth1. 中国人生性勤劳，为家庭和社会 创造财富 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 082happiness to the people with their painstaking effort. As history evolves, the virtue of diligence has become an heirloom of the Chinese nation. People work industriously, either as workers, peasants or businessmen. They often tell their younger generations: "Being industrious and thrifty in managing a household, the family can last long; and part -time study and part -time farming can proceed in the future;" and "The ground is covered with gold, which awaits only industrious people." These sayings reflect the belief that only through hard work can people enjoy a good life. 中华民族一向十分珍惜自己的劳动成果，以节俭朴素 为荣，以奢侈浪费为耻。无论民间百姓还是统治者中的开 明之士，都主张节俭，反对浪费。早在两千多年前，孔子就把俭朴视为美德，他对齐国宰相晏婴一件皮袍穿 30 年的俭朴作风大加赞赏，认为齐国有这样的宰相执政，真是天大的幸运。三国时期的诸葛亮把俭朴生活和个人道德修养联系起来，提出了“俭以养德”的道德名言，认为俭朴生活能够培养和增进个人的高尚道德。劳动人民作为社会财富的创造者，更是珍惜自己的劳动果实，反对铺张浪费，他们深知“一人知俭一家富” “奢者富不足，俭者贫有余”（铺张浪费的人，无论多富有都不会满足；节俭的人，尽管贫困也会觉得生活富足），节俭持家，使家道兴旺，而奢侈浪费，只会使家道走向败落。而在全球提倡保护环境与节约资源的今天，俭朴又必然承载起新的时代意义。 Chinese have always cherished the fruit of their own labor, taking pride in thrift and plain living, and regarding extravagance and wastefulness to be shameful. All people, be they civilians or enlightened personages among the rulers, advocate frugality and oppose wastefulness. As early as more than 2,000 years ago, Confucius deemed it a virtue to be frugal. He thought highly of Yan Ying, Prime Minister of the State of Qi, who wore a fur gown for 30 years, and believed the State of Qi was lucky to have such a prime minister. In the Three Kingdoms period (220 -280 AD), Zhuge Liang related frugal life to personal moral characteristics, and put forward a famous dictum that "Thrift nourishes virtues." Laboring people as the creator of social wealth cherish more of the fruit of their labor and oppose extravagance and reckless wasting of nature's bounties. They are well aware that frugality can prosper a family and that extravagance may ruin it. In today's situation, in which the whole globe advocates environmental protection and resource conservation, frugality is bound to have a new significance for the times. Hard work for a better life Environmental protection, Resource conservation1. 通过辛勤的劳动，开创美好的 生 活 2. 保护环境，节约资源 1 2 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 083中华民族推崇的人生理想，是追求有所作为； 看重的立身之本，是真才实学；认定的成才之路， 是发愤学习。重视读书和勤奋好学已成为世代相传的优良传统。中国有许多关于学习的格言，如：“学而不厌，诲人不倦。”（学习而不知满足，教导别人而不知疲倦）“学不可以已。”（学习是没有止境的）“少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。”（年轻时不好好学习，老了伤心后悔也没有用）等。同时，也流传着很多古人珍惜时间、刻苦攻读的故事。 The Chinese people highly esteem the displaying of one's talents and the achieving something as their ambition of life, value genuine knowledge and competence as the very foundation of the way one conducts himself in society, and think the way to become an accomplished person is to put all one's energy into study. The Chinese people attach great importance to study, and it has become a fine tradition passed on from generation to generation to be diligent and eager to learn. There are many Chinese maxims on this. For instance: "Never be tired of learning, and never be weary of teaching;" "Studying can never be stopped;" and "If one does not exert oneself in youth, he will regret in old age." Meanwhile, there are also many stories about ancient men's valuing the time and studying industriously. 战国时的苏秦，夜以继日地读书，实在太累了，就用 锥子刺腿来使头脑清醒；汉代的孙敬，为了防止读书时 瞌 睡，便用一根绳子把自己的头发系在房梁上，只要一打 瞌睡就会被扯醒。 这就是历史上有名的 “刺股悬梁” 的故事。 Su Qin of the Warring States Period (475 -221 BC) read day and night. When he was too tired, he would jab his legs with an awl to Diligent and Eager to Study勤奋好学 A portrait of a student studying at an autumn night1. 秋夜读书图 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 084keep himself awake. Sun Jing in the Han Dynasty (206 BC -220 AD) tied his hair to a ceiling beam to prevent him from dozing off when reading; thus, as he felt sleepy, he would be jerked back to wakefulness. 晋朝的车胤 （Chē Yìn） 、孙康、匡衡，家里都很穷， 连点灯的油都买不起。夏天的晚上，车胤用纱布做成一个 小口袋，捉一些萤火虫装进去，借着萤火虫发出的光亮看书；孙康在严寒的冬夜坐在雪地里，利用白雪的反光苦读；匡衡在墙上凿了个小洞，“偷”邻居家的一点灯光读书。成语“囊 （nánɡ） 萤映雪”和“凿壁偷光”讲的就是这几 个故事。 Che Yin, Sun Kang and Kuang Heng in the Jin Dynasty (265 - 420 AD) all came from improvised families and could not afford to light a lamp. On summer nights, Che Yin made a small gauze bag to hold fireflies, and read books by their light. On cold winter nights, Sun Kang sat on the ground covered with snow and read by its reflected light. Kuang Heng bore a hole on the wall in order to get some light from the neighbor's house to read. These old tales have been kept alive in idiomatic expressions of "reading by the light of bagged fireflies or the reflected light of snow," and "boring a hole on the wall to make use of the neighbor's light to study." 东晋大书法家王羲之自幼苦练书法。他每次写完字，都 到自家门前的池塘里洗毛笔，时间长了，一池清水变成了一 池墨水。后来，人们就把这个池塘称为“墨池”。王羲之通过勤学苦练，终于成为著名的书法家，被人们称为“书圣”。 The students of the Tsinghua University are studying at the library Peking University is one of the most dreamed school in China1. 北京清华大学的学生正在图书馆 学习 2. 北京大学是莘莘学子理想的学府 之一1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 085The great calligrapher Wang Xizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 - 420 AD) worked hard to practice calligraphy from his childhood. Each time he finished writing, he would go to a pond in front of his house to wash his writing brush; as time passed, the clean water in the pond became a pond of Chinese ink. Later, people called this stretch of water the "Chinese Ink Pond." As a result of diligent study and painstaking training, Wang Xizhi finally became a famous calligrapher — a "Calligrapher of the First Magnitude" as people called him. 中国当代许多著名的学者，也是勤奋好学的楷模。数 学家华罗庚，小时候在一家店铺里打工，工作非常辛苦， 但他仍挤出时间读书学习，最终成为享誉世界的数学家。 Many famous scholars and scientists in contemporary China were also models of diligence and eagerness to learn. Mathematician Hua Luogeng worked in a grocery store when he was young. The job was quite laborious, but he tried to find time to read and learn, and finally became a mathematician enjoying a worldwide prestige. 现在，人们的生活条件和学习条件好多了，不必再“囊 萤映雪”“凿壁偷光”，更不必模仿“刺股悬梁”的做法， 但古人那种勤奋好学的精神却在中华儿女的心中绵延不绝，它激励着一代又一代的中华儿女刻苦攻读，锲 （qiè） 而不 舍，奋发图强。 Nowadays, living and studying conditions have much improved, so there is no need to "read by the light of bagged fireflies or the reflected light of snow," or "bore a hole on the wall to make use of the neighbor's light to study," let alone to imitate ancient men to "jab one's legs with an awl and tie one's hair onto the house beam to keep oneself awake," but the spirit of the ancient Chinese to study diligently has come down generation by generation among the Chinese people, encouraging them to study assiduously, pursue persistently and push themselves forward. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 086谦虚礼让作为中华民族 的传统美德，主要包含以下 内容：第一是正确认识自己，能看到自己的不足，永不自满；第二是发现别人的长处，宽容别人的缺点， 尊重别人；第三是正确对待个人利益，懂得谦让，不居功，不争名夺利。古人把谦虚与成功的关系凝缩成“满招损，谦受益”这句话，指出人们如果自满就会招来损害，如果谦虚则能得到益处。 As traditional virtues of the Chinese nation, modesty and comity are mainly composed of the following elements: first, to know oneself accurately and see one's own limitations, and never become complacent; second, to appreciate others' strong points, tolerate others' weaknesses, and respect others; third, to correctly treat personal interests, give each other precedence, and not to claim credit for oneself, or to scramble for fame and gain. Ancient men distilled the relationship between modesty and successes into one sentence — "Complacency spells loss, while modesty brings benefit." 春秋时期， 孔子去拜访老子。 虽然老子的年龄比孔子大， 学问比孔子渊博， 但他还是亲自驾车， 赶到郊外去迎接孔子。 这次见面， 孔子虚心地向老子请教， 老子耐心地一一解答。临别时，老子说，有道德修养的人要朴实，不能骄傲贪婪。这些话给孔子留下了极深的印象。孔子后来说“三人行，必有我师”，告诫人们应该虚心向一切有长处的人学习。 In the Spring and Autumn Period (770 -476 BC), Confucius once went to visit Laozi. Although Laozi was older and more knowledgeable, Modesty and Comity谦虚礼让 A picture of "Carrying a Flogging Rod to Apologize" in a Peaking opera The Reconciliation of the General and the PremierA painting about Confucius visit Laozi A painting telling the story of Kong Rong's yielding bigger pears2. 京剧《将相和》中“负荆请罪” 剧照1. 孔子问礼图 3. 孔融让梨图1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 087he drove a cart in person to welcome Confucius to his home. Confucius asked Laozi modestly for advice and the latter explained various points patiently one by one. When they parted, Laozi said that a virtuous person should be sincere and honest, and not to be arrogant and greedy or have vain hope. These words left a deep impression on Confucius. He later said, "If there are three men walking together, one of them is bound to be good enough to be my teacher," suggesting people may learn from anyone who has strong points. 战国时， 赵国的蔺相如 （Lìn Xiànɡrú） 因功被封为高官， 大将军廉颇很不服气， 处处和他过不去。 而蔺相如毫不计较。 有一次，蔺相如和廉颇在路上相遇，廉颇故意挡道，蔺相如就退到一边。 蔺相如手下的人气不过。 蔺相如就对他们讲，文臣武将之间应该谦恭礼让， 加强团结， 这样国家才能兴旺。廉颇后来知道了这件事， 觉得很羞愧， 就到蔺相如家请罪。从此两人同心协力治理赵国。 In the Warring States Period (475 -221 BC), Lin Xiangru in the State of Zhao was given a title of senior official for having rendered outstanding service to the state, but General Lian Po claimed the credit for the work, and always tried to embarrass him. Lin Xiangru never argued with him. Once, Lin Xiangru met the general in the street and the latter deliberately blocked by the way. Lin Xiangru withdrew and let Lian Po go first. Lin's subordinates were angry, but Lin told them that officials and officers should be modest and polite, give each other precedence and strengthen unity, and only in this way could the country prosper. Later Lian Po learned about this, and in his shame he went to Lin Xiangru's house to apologize. From then on, the two acted in concert to manage the State of Zhao. 汉代的孔融 4 岁时，有 一天，父亲买来一些梨让大 家吃。 孔融挑了一个最小的。父亲问他为什么挑最小的，他说自己年纪小，应该吃最 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 088小的，大的让给哥哥们吃。“孔融让梨”的故事在中国家 喻户晓，家长们经常用这个故事教育孩子要学会谦让。 When Kong Rong of the Han Dynasty (206 BC -220 AD) was four years old, one day his father bought some pears and Kong Rong chose the smallest one. His father asked him why; he said that he should have the smallest and leave the bigger ones for his elder brothers since he was the youngest. Every household in China knows the story of "Kong Rong yielding the bigger pears to his elder brothers," and parents often instruct their children through this story to learn comity. 清朝康熙时期，安徽桐城人张英在北京做官。老家建 宅与邻居在宅基地上发生争执，家人寄信请他出面处理。 他回信说：“一纸书来只为墙，让他三尺又何妨。长城万里今犹在，不见当年秦始皇。”家人见信，主动在争执线上退让三尺，邻居深受感动，也退地三尺，留下著名的“六尺巷”。 During the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, Zhang Ying, a native of Tongcheng, Anhui, held an office in Beijing. His family in the hometown disputed with a neighbor over the issue of premises, and thus wrote to ask him for help. He wrote back, saying, "You my family wrote to me merely for the sake of a wall, but why do you not think of yielding a three - chi wide plot? The ten thousand li Great Wall still stands, but where is the Qinshihuang who had it built?" Zhang's family voluntarily retreated three - chi from the disputed line after receiving the letter, and their neighbor was deeply touched and yielded a three - chi wide plot as well. That is how the famous "Six -chi Lane" came into being. 值得一提的是，中华民族所倡导的谦 虚礼让并不是自卑和缺乏自信心，而是对 自己有正确的认识，尊重并理解他人，是为了让人与人之间的关系更融洽、 更和睦。 What deserves mentioning is that the modesty and comity advocated by the Chinese nation are not self -abasement or the lack of self - confidence; instead, they are a proper orientation of oneself, and the respect for and understanding of others for the sake of more harmonious relations between each other.A picture of the Six-chi Lane in Anhui1. 安徽六尺巷 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 089Honesty and Trustworthiness诚实守信 诚实，就是忠诚正直、言行一致、表里如一。守信， 就是遵守诺言、不虚伪欺诈。在中国的传统道德中，诚实 守信被视为做人和治国的根本。人们常说：“言必信，行必果。” “一言既出，驷马难追。”意思是，说出口的话就不能再收回，一定要说到做到。这些流传至今的古语，形象地表达了中华民族真诚信实、坚守诺言的品质。 Honesty is to be faithful and upright, think and act in the same way, and always practice what one preaches. Being trustworthy is to keep one's word and not be hypocritical or deceitful. The need to be honest and trustworthy has been vividly manifested through old sayings spread for thousands of years, such as "True to one's word and firm in one's actions" and "A word once spoken cannot be overtaken even by a team of four horses." 孔子的学生曾子就是个非常诚实守信的人。有一次， 曾子的妻子要出去办事，孩子哭闹着也要去。妻子哄孩子 说：“你不要去了，我回来杀猪给你吃。”她回来后，看见曾子真要杀猪，连忙上前阻止。曾子说，你欺骗了孩子，孩子就会不信任你。说着，就把猪杀了。曾子不欺骗孩子，也培养了孩子讲信用的品德。 Zengzi, a disciple of Confucius, was a very honest and trustworthy man. Once, his wife wanted to go to a market fair and their child cried and demanded to be taken along. His wife coaxed the child out of this by promising that, when she returned, she would kill a pig and cook pork for him. After she returned, she saw Zengzi was about to kill a pig and stopped him. But Zengzi said, "If you cheat the child, he will never trust you." He then went and killed the pig. Because Zengzi did not deceive the child, he fostered the spirit of keeping one's word in the child. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 090秦朝末年有个叫季布的人，一向重诺言、讲信用。人 们都说“得黄金百斤，不如得季布一诺”。这就是成语“一 诺千金”的由来。后来，季布遇到了灾祸，正是靠了朋友的帮助，才幸免于难。可见，一个人如果言而有信，自然会得到大家的尊敬和爱护。 In the late Qin Dynasty (221 -206 BC), there was a man named Ji Bu who always kept his promise. People often said, "Better to get Ji Bu's promise than one hundred jin (Chinese weight measurement) of gold," thus creating the expression that a "promise is worth one thousand bars of gold." Later, when Ji Bu met with catastrophe, he narrowly escaped thanks to the help of his friends. Hence, a person who keeps his word will naturally win respect and care from the people. 晏殊是北宋著名的文学家和政治家， 14岁被作为 “神童” 推荐给朝廷。他本来可以不用考试就能得到官职，但他还 是决定参加考试。事有凑巧，那次的考试题目是他曾经做过的， 还得到过好几位名师的指点。 晏殊把实情告诉了皇帝，请求另出题目。皇帝与大臣们商议后出了一道难度更大的题目， 让他当堂作文。 结果， 他的文章又得到了皇帝的夸奖。 Yan Shu, a famous litterateur and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty, was recommended as a "child prodigy" to the court Chinese famous time-honored shop2. 中国老字号店铺 1 A painting telling the story of Zengzi's slaughtering a pig1. 曾子杀猪图 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 091when he was 14 years old. He actually could be appointed an office without taking part in an imperial civil examination, but he still decided to participate in it. Just by accident, the subject for the examination question was what he had done before, and he had received instruction from several tutors on that matter. Yan Shu told the emperor the truth, and asked for another subject. The emperor gave him a more difficult subject after consulting with his ministers, and Yan Shu composed the essay on spot, and won the emperor's high praise with his new essay. 旧时中国店铺的门口，一般都写有“货真价实，童叟 无欺”八个大字。这说明，中国自古在商品买卖中，就提 倡公平交易、诚实待客、不欺诈、不做假的行业道德。 In the old days, the doors of Chinese shops had an inscription reading, "Guaranteed quality and reasonable prices for all customers." This shows that since ancient times China advocated the ethics of fair trade, honesty towards customers, no deception and no falsification. 在当代中国，诚实守信的美德也得到了发扬光大。这 种美德表现在工作和学习上，就是认真踏实，实事求是； 表现在与人交往中，就是真诚待人，互相信赖；表现在对待国家和集体的态度上，就是奉公守法，忠诚老实。 In modern China, the virtue of being honest and trustworthy has been carried forward. It is to be single -minded, earnest and steadfast at work and study; it is to be sincere and reliable when making friends; it is to be law -abiding, faithful and honest as citizens and members of collectives. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 092 乐善好施， 顾名思义， 就是乐于帮助别人， 喜欢做善事。 乐善好施在中国民间被称为“行善”和“义举”，它与同 情、正义、善良、热情等优秀品质密切相连。中华民族历来把帮助别人当作一件快乐的事，提倡以真诚的同情心主动去帮助和解救那些处于危难和困境中的人们。 这种帮助，不计亲疏，不图回报。人们把帮助他人当作崇高的义务，也在帮助他人的过程中获得幸福，使自己的精神、道德得到升华和完善。 Being glad to give to charities, also referred to in China as "doing good deeds" and "righteous deeds," is closely linked to such outstanding qualities as sympathy, justice, kindness, and warm -heartedness. It is a traditional virtue of the Chinese nation. Chinese people have always considered it a pleasure to help others, and take the initiative to help those in difficulties with sincere sympathy. This kind of help makes no distinction between those who are relatives or friends and those who are not, and requires no repayment. People deem it a noble obligation to help others, during which they become happy and thus promote and perfect their soul and morals of their own.Being Glad to Give to Charities乐善好施 A statue of Fan Li A portrait of Fan Zhongyan1. 范蠡塑像 2. 范仲淹像 1 传统美德篇 Traditional Virtues 093范蠡（Fàn Lǐ） 是春秋后期越国大政治家。他曾经帮 助越王勾践复国雪耻，后来去经商，在商业经营方面很有 一套成功经验。他曾三次获得大量钱财，但每次都把这些钱财接济给了他周围有困难的人。人们称赞他是一位“富好行其德”（富有而喜欢做仁德之事）的大善人。 Fan Li was a great statesman of the State of Yue in the late Spring and Autumn Period. He once helped Goujian, a king of the State of Yue, to recover his lost power and revenge on his enemy. Later, he became a merchant and achieved great success in business operation. He made piles of money on three separate occasions, but each time he used it to help people in need around him, and was thus praised as a good man who "was rich and fond of good deeds." 东汉光武帝的外祖父樊重也是一个乐善好施的人，他 曾经借给贫困人家大量钱财，却将这些人的借债文书一一 烧毁，使借贷人十分感动。他家养了不少鱼和牲畜，凡是有人向他讨要，他都会爽快答应。 Fan Zhong, the maternal grandfather of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty on his mother's side, was also a man willing to give to charities. He lent a generous amount of money to people in need, but before his death, he had the loan documents set on fire, which deeply moved the debtors. He and his family raised many fish and livestock, and with no hesitation, he would them to anyone who made such a request. 宋朝的范仲淹做地方官时，一位下属病死，遗下年轻 的妻子和两个孩子。范仲淹便拿出自己的钱接济他们。在 他的带动下，其他官员也纷纷解囊相助。这种扶危济困的行为也感染、教育了下一代，范仲淹的儿子也继承了这种美德，成为一个乐于助人的人。 Fan Zhongyan of the Song Dynasty (960 -1279 AD) was once a local official. During his tenure, one of his subordinates died of illness, leaving behind a young wife and two children. Fan Zhongyan gave financial aid to them. Encouraged by Fan, other officials also showed their generosity. Such acts of helping those in distress had a positive influence on the next generation, and Fan Zhongyan's son inherited this virtue and became a man willing to help others. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 094鸦片战争后，林则徐被流放到新疆。他在伊犁捐款兴 修了龙口渠，为新疆人民谋福利，完成了一生中最后一次 为国为民的慈善举动。 After the Opium War, Lin Zexu was banished to Xinjiang. He donated money to build the Longkou Trench in Yili, for the sake of the benefit of Xinjiang people. It was the last charity he did for his country and people in his life. 旅居海外的许多华侨、华人，为兴教助学、扶助贫困 地区慷慨解囊，义捐善款。他们的善举和美德，得到了家 乡人民和海外人士的尊敬和爱戴。 Many overseas Chinese and foreign citizens of Chinese origin generously give financial aid and donate money to impoverished areas in order to provide educational opportunities and support and help those who want to learn. Their good deeds and virtues have won them the love and respect of people both at home and abroad. 乐善好施、扶危济困、助人为乐的美好品德，在今天 的中国更是深入人心。一人受难，众人相帮，一方遭灾， 八方支援，已成为一种普遍的社会风尚。 Virtues of being ready to do good and give alms, helping those in distress and aiding those in peril, and feeling happy to help others, have taken root in the hearts of the people in present -day China. It has become a common practice that whenever there is a problem, assistance comes from all quarters.Donations for the Hope Project helped many children from poor families to receive education1. 中国的“希望工程”捐助活动， 帮助了很多贫困家庭的孩子 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 095 民族篇中国文化常识 （修订本） 民族篇古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 浑天仪模型 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 096中国是世界古代文明发源地之一。古代中国所创造的 科学技术成果十分丰富，而且独具特色，其中许多方面在 相当长的历史时期内，一直保持着世界领先的地位。中国古代的科学技术成就几乎遍及科技的各个领域， 从天文学、数学、农学、医学，到建筑、冶炼、机械、纺织、印刷、陶瓷等，都有相当突出的成就。 China is one of the cradles of ancient civilizations in the world. The achievements of ancient China in the fields of science and technology are abundant and unique; over a relatively long historical period, they held a leading position in the world. The ancient Chinese people made considerably outstanding achievements in nearly all aspects of science and technology, ranging from astronomy, mathematics and agriculture to architecture, metallurgy, machinery, textiles, printing and pottery, and were all considerably outstanding.概述 Introduction The achievements of science and technology of ancient ChinaZhang Heng, Hua Tuo, Jia Sixie, Zu Chongzhi, Shen Kuo, Guo Shoujing, Li Shizhen, Cai Lun 2. 中国古代科技成就组图1. 张衡、华佗、贾思勰、祖冲之、 沈括、郭守敬、李时珍、蔡伦 张衡 华佗 贾思勰 祖冲之 郭守敬 李时珍 蔡伦 沈括 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 097中国古代科技的发展具有明显的重经验、实用性突出等特点。总的进程受外来影响 不大， 几千年来自成体系， 延续发展， 没有中断， 这与其他国家的古代科技文明有所不同。 中国科技的总体水平在两汉以后迅速跃居世界前列，并于宋代达到高峰。在整个发展过程中，中国科技曾有多方面的成就领先于其他国家几百年甚至上千年，对世界科技的发展产生了重大影响。 The science and technology of ancient China obviously featured experimentalism and practicality. Their overall process reflected little influence from outside, and formed a system of their own and continued in continuous development for thousands of years, without any discontinuity. This is different from the ancient scientific and technological civilizations of other countries. The overall level of science and technology of China made a leap development to come out in front in the world after the Han Dynasty, and reached its summit during the Song Dynasty. Through the whole process of development, the science and technology of China once went ahead of other countries for centuries in many fields, casting important influence over the development of world science and technology.2 指南针 活字印刷术 中医中药 火药 算盘 《农政全书》 纺织 造纸术 天文与历法 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 098Four Great Inventions四大发明 古代中国是一个发明与发现的国度。在灿若繁星的科 技成就中，中国古代的“四大发明”，对整个世界的文明 进化做出了巨大贡献。 Ancient China was a country of inventions and discoveries. Among its abundant brilliant scientific and technological achievements, the "Four Great Inventions" had made enormous contributions to the development of civilizations of the whole world. 造纸术 Papermaking 造纸术发明以前，人们把 字刻写在龟甲、兽骨、竹片、 木片和丝织品上。 甲骨、 竹片、木片太重，丝织品又太贵，都不实用。西汉初期，人们又用丝絮和麻造出了比较粗糙的纸，但不太适合写字。 Before papermaking technology was invented, people carved or wrote Chinese characters on tortoise shells, animals bones, bamboo slices, wooden plates, and silk. Tortoise shells, animal bones and wooden plates are too heavy to use while silk fabrics are too expensive, so none was very practical. Around the early period of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC -25 AD), people made paper from hemp and ramie, which was very rough and not suitable for writing.A flow chart of papermaking in ancient times Ancient gunpowder weapons of China1. 古代造纸流程图 2. 中国古代火器 abc de f gh i 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 099到了东汉，蔡伦在总结前人经验的基础上，用树皮、 麻头、破布、旧鱼网等多种植物纤维制成了高质量的纸， 由于蔡伦曾被封为龙亭侯，所以人们把他造的纸叫作“蔡侯纸”。蔡侯纸价格低廉，适合书画，它的出现标志着纸张开始取代简帛 ①。 During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD), Cai Lun improved the technique after years of experimentation. He used various plant fibers such as bark, hemp, rags and torn fishing nets as raw materials to produce high quality paper. Because Cai Lun was bestowed the title of Longting Hou (Longting Marquis), people called the paper he invented "Cai Hou's paper." Cai Hou's paper was cheap, easily available and suitable for writing on. Its emergence marked the beginning of paper replacing jian and bo①. 中国的造纸术在隋末唐初传到朝鲜半岛、 越南和日本， 8 世纪传到阿拉伯地区，12 世纪由阿拉伯人又传到欧洲。 纸的发明，极大地方便了信息的储存、传播和文化交流，对推动人类文明的发展具有划时代的意义。 China's paper making technology spread to the Korean Peninsula, Vietnam and Japan in the late Sui (581 -618 AD) and early Tang (618 - 907 AD) Dynasties, later to the Arabian area in the 8th century, and to Europe through the Arabians. The invention of paper greatly facilitated information storage and cultural spread and exchanges, and thus had an epochal significance in promoting the development of human civilizations. 火药 Gunpowder 火药的配方最初是由中国古代炼丹②家在炼制丹药的过 程中发现的。后来，人们根据这个配方，将硝石、硫黄、 木炭按一定比例配制在一起，制成了黑火药。唐代中期的书籍里，就记载了制造这种火药的方法。火药发明以后，先是被制成爆竹和焰火，唐朝末年开始用在军事上。到了宋代，火药被大量应用于军事，常见的火药武器有火枪、火箭、火炮等。 The formula of gunpowder was first discovered by Taoist alchemists② of ancient China while trying to make of pills to achieve immortality. Later, people made black gunpowder with niter, sulfur and 小注解·Footnotes ① 简：古代用来写字的竹 片；帛（bó） ：丝织品的总称。 ① Jian: bamboo slices used to write on; bo: a general term of silk products. ② 炼丹：中国古人认为， 用朱砂等矿物质做原料，采用 加热等化学方法，能够炼制出一种长生不老的丹药，这个过程就叫作“炼丹”。炼丹的最初目的虽然不科学，但人们在炼丹过程中有了许多发现与发明，对化学发展做出了巨大的贡献。 ② Taoist alchemists: Ancient Chinese held that through some chemical methods, such as heating, mixed minerals such as vermilion might produce kinds of pills of immortality. Taoist alchemy is not scientific, but the Taoist alchemists made many discoveries and inventions in the course of alchemical practice, making enormous contributions to the development of chemistry. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 100charcoal of certain proportions on the basis of the formula. Books of the middle Tang Dynasty (618 -907 AD) recorded the method of producing this kind of gunpowder. It was first used to make firecrackers and fireworks, and then in military affairs in the late Tang Dynasty. In the Northern Song Dynasty (960 -1127 AD), gunpowder -based weapons such as rockets and cannons were widely used. 大约在唐代晚期，制造火药的主要原料——硝石，已 经传到阿拉伯、波斯等地，因为硝石是白色的，所以被阿 拉伯人称为“中国雪”“中国盐”。大约在 13 世纪上半叶，火药和火药武器经由阿拉伯传到欧洲。欧洲各国不仅用火药制造武器，还在开山、修路、挖河等工程中广泛使用，促进了工业革命的到来。 Around the late Tang Dynasty, niter, the major material for making gunpowder, had been spread to Arabia, Persia and other places. Niter is white, and was thus called "Chinese snow" and "Chinese salt" by Arabians. Around the first half of the 13th century, both gunpowder and related weapons spread to Europe via Arabia. Europeans not only used gunpowder in weapons, but also for cutting through mountains, constructing roads, and digging rivers. The wide use of gunpowder in engineering work accelerated the advent of the Industrial Revolution. 指南针 Compass 早在战国时期， 中国人就发现了磁石指示南北的特性， 并且制成了最古老的磁性指向器——司南。司南由一把光 滑的磁勺和刻着方位的铜盘组成，勺柄指示的方向是南。司南发展到宋代，已经演变成指南鱼和指南针。指南鱼是将剪成鱼形的薄铁片磁化，使它带有磁性，使用时让它浮在水面，鱼头就会指向南方。指南针是把钢针磁化后，放在水面、 指甲或碗口等光滑的表面或悬挂在没有风的空中，它便可以指示方向。 As early as in the Warring States Period (475 -221 BC), Chinese discovered that a magnet could indicate south and north, and on the basis of this feature, made a southward -pointing instrument that was the prototype of the compass. The instrument comprised a smooth magnetic spoon and a copper plate carved with directions; the handle of the spoon points south. In the Song Dynasty, such prototype evolved 21 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 101into a southward -pointing fish and a southward -pointing needle. A southward -point fish was a magnetized fish - shaped thin iron slice, whose head would point southward when it floated on the surface of water. A southward - pointing needle was a magnetized steel needle, which was able to indicate directions when it was placed on such smooth surfaces as water, nails or a bowl, or hung in the windless air. 指南针发明并广泛应用于宋代。人们把经过 人工磁化的指南针和刻有方向的方位盘结合起 来，制成了“罗盘”。有了罗盘，无论在什么情况下，人 们都能准确地辨认方向了。 The compass was invented and widely used in the Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD). People combined an artificially magnetized compass with an azimuth plate to create a proper compass. With the help of an azimuth plate, people were able to precisely tell directions mall situation. 宋代，指南针已传入阿拉伯地区，并被形象地称为“水 手之眼”。公元 1180 年左右，指南针又经阿拉伯人传入欧 洲。指南针的发明，推动了航海事业的大发展。它为郑和七下西洋、哥伦布发现新大陆、麦哲伦环球航行以及欧洲殖民地的开拓和世界市场的建立提供了可能。 In the Song Dynasty, the compass was spread to Arabia, and was affectionately called "the Eye of Sailors." Around 1180, the compass was introduced into Europe via Arabia. The invention of the compass pushed forward the rapid development of navigation, making it possible for Zheng He to make his seven voyages across seas to Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean in the early Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644 AD), Christopher Columbus to discover the New World, and Ferdinand Magellan to sail around the world, and facilitated the startup of European colonies and the establishment of world markets. 活字印刷术 Movable-type Printing 印刷术发明以前，读书人要得到一本新书，只能一个 字一个字地抄写。隋唐时期发明了雕版印刷术。雕版印刷 术是把字一个一个地刻在一块木板上，涂上墨，用纸盖在The compass of the Song Dynastycompass A southward-pointing instrument, the prototype of the compass2. 宋代指南针1. 指南针 3. 司南 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 102 上面进行印刷。它的发明提高了印书的速度，但是因为刻 版费时、不易保存、无法修改错字等缘故，依然不太实用。到了北宋，平民发明家毕昇 （Bì Shēnɡ） 终于发明了活字 印刷术。他首先把字刻在一小块一小块的胶泥上，然后放进火里烧硬，做成一个个活字，可反复用于不同版面的排版与印刷。活字印刷术的发明，既省时又省力，经济方便，使印刷技术进入了一个新时代。在后来的发展中，用来制活字的胶泥被锡、木头、铜、铅等材料所替代。可以说，直到 20 世纪电子排版系统出现以前，人类一直使用的是毕昇发明的活字印刷术。 Before printing was invented, a scholar had to copy characters one by one if he wanted to get a new book. In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, block technology was invented, which improved the speed of printing. In block technology, Chinese characters were engraved on a wooden plate and coated with Chinese ink, and then covered with paper to print. Block technology sped up the printing of books, but was still impractical because engraving blocks was time -consuming, such blocks could not be easily preserved, and misplaced words could not be easily corrected. During the Northern Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng finally invented movable -type printing. He engraved the characters on small pieces of clay, and heated them until they became hard movable characters. Such movable characters could be repeatedly used for the type setting and printing of different printed sheets. This method was both economical and timesaving, ushering in a new age of printing. In the development afterwards, clay used to make movable types was replaced with tin, wood, copper, lead and so on. So to speak, mankind had been using Bi Sheng's movable -type print until the emergence of the electronic typeset system in the 20th century. 中国的活字印刷术先向东传到朝鲜、日本，之后 向西传到波斯、埃及，最后传遍了全世界。印刷术的 发明大大加快了世界各国文化传播与交流的速 度。 China's movable -type printing first spread eastward into Korea and Japan, and then westward into Persia and Egypt, and at last, across the world. The invention of printing greatly sped up the development of exchanges between cultures of all the countries throughout the world.A stencil-plate of movable-type printing A stencil-plate of movable-type printing1. 元代转轮活字盘 2. 活字印刷术模版 21 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 103Splendid Achievements of Astronomic Observation辉煌的天象观测成就 中国古代的天文学起步很早，而 且十分发达。 它是从观测天象开始的， 人们观测天象的最初目的是为了了解时间的变化。由于农业生产和生活的需要，古人很早就开始了对日月星辰的观测。 Astronomy began early in ancient China, and was very advanced. It was started with astronomic observation, the earliest purpose of which was to understand the change of time. Due to the requirements of agricultural production and daily life, ancient people had begun to observe the sun, the moon and other stars since very early times. 人们把观测到的日、月和金、木、水、火、土五大行 星叫作“七曜 （yào） ”，相关记载在春秋时期已经出现。 中国古人还较早地观测并建立了“二十八宿（ xiù）”系统， 这是沿黄道、赤道附近的 28 个区域的恒星区划系统。据出 土文物考证①，二十八宿系统最晚在战国时期就已经形成。 People observed the sun, the moon and the five planets of Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and Saturn, referring to them together as "Qi Yao" (Seven Bright Stars), and related records emerged in the Spring and Autumn Period. The ancient Chinese had also observed and established the "twenty -eight stars" system, which was a zoning system of fixed stars in 28 zones around ecliptic and equator. According to the research of excavated cultural relics ①, the 28 -star constellation system had been formed in the Warring States Period at the latest. 对于恒星和行星的观测记载，中国出现了一部令世界 惊叹的天文学专著——《甘石星经》。《甘石星经》是战The Twenty-eight Stars picture on the lacquered box cover unearthed from the tomb of Yi the Marquis of the State of Zeng1. 曾侯乙墓漆箱盖上的二十八宿图 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 在湖北随州发掘的战国 时期的曾侯乙墓中，出土了一 个漆箱盖，上面绘有二十八宿星图及全部名称。这是迄今所发现的关于二十八宿最早、最完整的记录。 ① On a lacquered cover of a box excavated from the tomb of Yi the Marquis of State of Zeng of the Warring States Period in Sui County, Hubei, are depicted a picture of the "twenty-eight stars" and their names. This is the earliest and the most complete record of the "twenty-eight stars" that has been found so far. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 104国时期甘德与石申两人天文著作的合本。书中记录了八百 多个恒星的名字， 并测定了其中 121 颗恒星的位置。 另外，甘德和石申还对五大行星的运行轨迹进行了描述，并对它们的运动周期加以测算，为后来的行星动态表的编制奠定了基础。 For the records of observation of fixed stars and planets, there occurred a world astronomic monograph in China, the Constellations of Gan De and Shi Shen . This book is a bound volume of the astronomic works by Gan De and Shi Shen of the Warring States. It records the names of more than 800 fixed stars, and determines the positions of 121 among them. Moreover, Gan De and Shi Shen had also described the orbits of five planets, and measured and calculated their movement periods, laying a foundation for the future making of the dynamic table of planets. 由于占卜 （zhānbǔ）②活动的需要，从远古时期开始， 中国古人就十分注意对奇异天象进行观测，并逐渐形成了 连续记录的传统。如公元前 687 年发生流星雨的记载，公元前 644 年出现陨星的记事，公元前 613 年观测到哈雷彗星的记录等，都被世界公认为最早。此外，中国对于太阳黑子、新星、超新星的记录，也是世界上最早、资料最丰富的。 Due to the tradition of divining activities②, ancient Chinese paid much attention to the observance of strange astronomic phenomena since remote antiquity, gradually forming a collection of consecutive records. For example, the record of a meteor shower in 687 BC, the record of meteorite in 644 BC, the record of Halley's Comet in 613 BC, are all recognized as the earliest ones in the world. The records of maculae, novae and supernovae made by Chinese people are also the earliest and the most abundant in the world. A comet picture painted in 168 BC, recorded in the silk slices excavated from the tomb of the Han Dynasty at Mawangdui, Changsha1. 中国古代彗星图：绘制于公元前 168 年前，长沙马王堆汉墓出土帛书记载小注解·Footnotes ② 占卜 ：古代用龟甲 、 植物、铜钱等推断祸福的一种 活 动。 ② Divining activities: Ancient Chinese used tortoise shells, plants and copper coins to foretell fortunes and misfortunes. 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 105Ancient Chinese Calendar And 24 Seasonal Division Points古代历法与二十四节气 “历法”是中国古代天 文学的核心，中国历法的雏 形早在夏代就已出现。汉武帝时期“太初历”的制定，标志着中国第一部完整历法的出现。到了 1280 年，元代郭守敬创制的“授时历”，成为中国古代传统历法发展的高峰， 推行使用 360 年。 “授时历”采用的回归年 ①长度为 365.2425 天， 与 地 球 绕 太 阳公转一周的实际时间仅差 26秒，和现代世界通用的公历相同。 "Calendar" was at the core of ancient astronomy of China, and the rudiments of the Chinese calendar date back to the Xia Dynasty. The establishment of "Taichu Calendar" during the reign of Emperor Wudi of Han marked the emergence of the first complete calendar of China. In 1280, the "Shoushi Calendar" made by Guo Shoujing of the Yuan Dynasty showcased the summit of the development of the traditional Chinese calendar, and was spread and used for more than 360 years. In the "Shoushi Calendar," a tropical year ① is 365.2425 days long, the same as that of the Gregorian calendar commonly used in today's world, with only a 26 -second error compared with the real time the earth takes to revolve around the sun.A table of traditional Chinese Festivals (with only the date of Chinese calendar marked)1. 中国传统节日表（农历标注） 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 回归年：是太阳中心连 续两次经过春分点所需要的时 间，一个回归年等于 365 天 5小时 48 分 46 秒。 ① Tropical year: The time that the center of the sun takes to consecutively pass by the vernal equinox point twice. A tropical year is 365 days plus five hours 48 minutes and 46 seconds. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 106由于中国古代的传统历 法与农业生产直接相关，所 以又称“农历”。规定平年12 个月，大月 30 天，小月29 天，全年 354 天或 355 天( 一年中哪月大，哪月小，年年不同 )。由于平均每年比回归年约差 11 天，所以1 9 年里设置 7 个闰月 ，也就是增加 7 个月，增加的那个月叫“闰月”，这一年就称为 “闰年” ， 闰年 13 个月，全年 383 天或 384 天。中国的这种传统历法，一直沿用至今。像春节、端午节、中秋节等一些传统节日，都是按照农历推算的。 Traditional Chinese calendar is directly related to agricultural production, hence is also known as " nong li " (literally agricultural calendar, basically a lunar calendar). It is regulated that a non -leap year contains 12 months, with a larger month consisting of 30 days and a smaller one of 29 days, while the whole year has 354 or 355 days (the order of larger and smaller months changes each year). Because each year is about 11 days shorter than a tropical year, 7 leap months are established every 19 years. The added months are called a "leap month," and the year which contains a leap month is known as a "leap year." A leap year has 13 months, totaling 383 or 384 days. This traditional calendar of China is still in use today. Some traditional festivals, including the Spring Festival, the Duanwu Festival and the Mid -autumn Festival, are all calculated and determined by following the traditional Chinese calendar. 为了便于安排农业生产，古人还创制了“二十四节 气”。二十四节气是地球在围绕太阳公转轨道上的二十四 个不同的位置，是对太阳周年运动位置的一种特殊的描述形式，能很好地反映一年中寒暑、雨旱、日照长短等变化 A scene of playing on the swing on the day of Pure Brightness A calendar showing both Chinese calendar and the Gregorian calendar1. 荡秋千是中国古代清明节习俗 之 一 2. 2014 年 1 月日历图样1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 107规律。所以，二十四节气不但具有重要的天文意义，而且 对于农业生产有着重大的指导作用。战国时期已形成完备的二十四节气系统：由冬至开始，每经 1/24 年交一个节气，其名称分别是冬至、小寒、大寒、立春、雨水、惊蛰、春分、清明、谷雨、立夏、小满、芒种、夏至、小暑、大暑、立秋、处暑、白露、秋分、寒露、霜降、立冬、小雪、大雪。这些名称表示了一年之中中国黄河流域的气候、农事与自然现象的变化，如惊蛰意味蛇虫冬眠已醒，芒种说明种子破胎而出，等等。另外，不同的节气，中国人也有一些不同的风俗，像“清明”，从古至今，中国人一直保持着踏青插柳、祭祖扫墓以及荡秋千等风俗。 For the convenient arrangement of agricultural production, ancient Chinese had also created 24 seasonal division points. The 24 seasonal division points indicate 24 different positions of the earth as it revolves around the sun in its orbit. It is a special description of the position of the sun in its annual motion, and is able to satisfactorily indicate the change of seasons and climate. So the 24 seasonal division points have not only an astronomic significance, but play an important guiding role in agricultural production as well. As early as in the Warring States period, a complete system of 24 seasonal division points had been formed: Starting with the Winter Solstice, one seasonal divisional point arrives about every other 15 days, and the names for the 24 seasonal division points are: Beginning of Spring, Rain Water, Waking of Insects, Vernal Equinox, Pure Brightness, Grain Rain, Beginning of Summer, Grain Budding, Grain in Ear, Summer Solstice, Slight Heat, Great Heat, Beginning of Autumn, Limit of Heat, White Dew, Autumnal Equinox, Cold Dew, Frost's Descent, Beginning of Winter, Slight Snow, Great Snow, Winter Solstice, Slight Cold, and Great Cold, respectively. These names indicate the changes of climate, agricultural activities and natural phenomena in the drainage of the Yellow River throughout the year. For example, the Waking of Insects suggests that snakes and insects have awakened from their dormancy, and the Grain in Ear indicates that seeds are germinating. Besides, different seasonal division points are observed by different customs in China. For instance, Chinese people have had the custom of going outing, inserting willow twigs, offering sacrifices to ancestors at tombs and playing on swings on the day of Pure Brightness. 2小知识· Small Encyclopedia 《二十四节气歌》 The song for the 24 Seasonal Division Points 春雨惊春清谷天， 夏满芒夏暑相 连，秋处露秋寒霜降，冬雪雪冬小大 寒。上半年是六、二一，下半年是八、二三。 Fllowing the Beginning of Spring and Rain Water, the Waking of Insects awakems the Vernal Equinox, and then comes the Pure Brightness and Grain Rain, Beginning of Summer, Grain Budding, Grain in Ear, Summer Solstice, Slight Heat, Great Heat, Beginning of Autumn, Limit of Heat, White Dew, Autumnal Equinox, Cold Dew, Frost's Descent Beginning of Winter, Slight Snow, Great Snow, Winter Solstice, Slight Cold, and Great Cold, respectively. After the Beginning of Summer, Grain Budding, Grain in Ear, and Summer Solstice, the Slight Heat is connected with Great Heat. The Beginning of Autumn and Limit of Heat is followed by the White Dew, Autumnal Equinox, Gold Dew and then the Frost's Descent, And the Beginning of Winter leads to the Slight Snow, Great Snow, Winter Solstice, Slight Cold and Great Cold. In the first half of the year, the seasonal division points fall on the sixth or 21st day of the month, And those in the latter half yaer occur on the eighth or 23rd day of the month. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 108 Rigui (a kind of sundial) A copper clepsydra1. 日晷 2. 铜壶滴漏Ingenious Astronomic Instuments of Ancient China精妙的古代天文仪器 中国天文仪器以构思巧妙、 制作精美、 用途广泛著称。主要有用于测时计时的圭 （ɡuī） 表、日晷 (ɡuǐ) 、漏刻，还有用 于测量或演示天体运动的浑天仪。 The astronomic instruments of ancient China are famous for their ingenious design, exquisite craftsmanship and wide range of use. They mainly include guibiao (a kind of sundial), rigui (a kind of sundial) and louke (a kind of clepsydra). 圭表、日晷与漏刻 Sundial and Copper Clepsydra 圭表是中国最古老的一种测定时间的天文仪器，早在 周代就已出现，一直沿用到明清时期。元代，经著名天文 学家郭守敬改进的圭表， 达到最高水平。 圭表由 “圭” 和 “表”两部分构成，正南北方向平放的尺子叫作“圭”，直立于 “圭”南端的杆子叫作“表”。根据太阳照射所形成的“表” 影移动规律和长短变化，人们可以推算出一天的时刻、回归年长度，以及二十四节气等。　 Guibiao (a kind of sundial) is the earliest astronomic instrument to measure time in China. Its emergence dates back to the Zhou Dynasty, and was still in use until the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The guibiao upgraded by Guo Shoujing, a famous astronomer of the Yuan Dynasty, reached the highest level. Guibiao is composed of the two parts of " gui" and " biao." In a guibiao , the ruler in a level position precisely north -south is called " gui," and the pole vertically erected on the southern end of " gui" is "biao." In accordance with the changes of the shadow of " biao" formed by the sunlight, people can calculate the time of day, the length of a tropical year, the 24 seasonal division points and so forth.1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 109日晷是利用太阳影子来测定时刻的仪器。秦汉时期， 日晷已在民间流行。日晷通常由一个大圆盘和一根铜针组 成。铜针叫作“晷针”，垂直地穿过圆盘中心；石制的圆盘叫作 “晷面” ， 刻着 12 个时辰 ①。 随着太阳由东向西移动， 晷针的影子也慢慢地由西向东移动， 如同现代钟表的表面，比较准确地显示出一天的时刻。 Rigui (another kind of sundial) also uses the shadow of sunlight to measure time. It became popular in the Qin (221 -206 BC) and Han (206 BC-220 AD) Dynasties. Typically, a rigui is composed of a round plate and a copper needle. The copper needle is called " guizhen " (the needle of sundial), which vertically passes through the center of the round plate. The round plate, made of stone, is called " guimian " (the surface of sundial), on whose surface is carved with 12 shichen (zi, chou, yin, mao, chen, si, wu, wei, shen, you, xu and hai)①. As the sun moves from east to west, the shadow of the copper needle moves slowly from west to east, just like the face of a modern clock. It provides a relatively accurate indication of the time of day. 漏刻又叫作“铜壶滴漏”。可以在没有日影的条件下 使 用，是中国古代应用最广的计时仪器。最早的漏刻用一 只铜壶盛水，壶底有一个小洞，壶中插着一根刻有刻度的 标杆，水从小洞滴出后，人们根据水位降低后标杆上的刻度来判断时间。由于这种漏刻计时不够精确，后经历代完善，逐渐发展为由四只漏壶组成的漏刻。人们把四只漏壶依次放在一个四级木架上，上面的叫作日壶，下面的分别叫月壶、星壶、授水壶。日壶、月壶、星壶的下面各有一个滴水的铜嘴， 授水壶内有一个标尺。 水从日壶滴入月壶，再滴到星壶， 最后滴入授水壶。 随着授水壶内水量的增多，标尺受水的浮力逐渐上升， 人们通过标尺露出壶外的刻度，就可以知道时间了。 漏刻的级数越多， 计时就越准确。 现在，北京的中国历史博物馆和故宫博物院还分别保存着元代和清代的四级漏刻，供人们参观。 Louke (a kind of clepsydra), also known as a copper clepsydra, can be used when there is no sunlight, and was the most widely used time-measuring instrument in ancient China. The earliest clepsydra was a copper pot holding water with a small opening at the bottom and a pole with scales standing in the center. When the water dropped 小注解·Footnotes ① 时辰：中国旧时的计时 单位。把一昼夜平均分成十二 段，每段叫做一个时辰，合现在的两个小时。 ① Shichen: A timing unit of ancient China. One day and night is equally divided into 12 periods, with each called a shichen, equating today's two hours. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 110through the small hole, people determined what time it was by the scale on the pole as the water level decreased. This method of measuring time through clepsydra was still not accurate; hence it gradually evolved into a set of four pots. Such four pots are placed in order on a four - level wooden stand, with the highest one called the Sun Pot, and below it the Moon Pot, Star Pot and Water -receiving Pot, respectively. The Sun Pot, Moon Pot and Star Pot all have an opening at the bottom for water to drip, and the Water -receiving Pot has a gauge inside. The water drops from the Sun Pot into the Moon Pot and then into the Star Pot and at last into the Water -receiving Pot. As more and more water drops into the Water -receiving Pot, the gauge gradually increases with the buoyancy of water. Thus, people could tell the time by observing the scale above the water. The more levels the clepsydra has, the more accurate it is to measure time. Now, the four -level clepsydras of the Yuan (1271 -1368 AD) and Qing (1644 -1911 AD) Dynasties are preserved respectively in the Museum of Chinese History and the Palace Museum in Beijing. 浑天仪 Huntianyi (Celestial Globe and Armillary Sphere) 浑天仪是浑仪和浑象的合称。浑仪是用于测量天体位 置的仪器；浑象是用于演示天体运行的仪器。　　 Huntianyi is the name of hunyi (celestial globe) and hunxiang (armillary sphere) in general. Hunyi was an instrument used to measure the positions of celestial bodies, and hunxiang was the one to demonstrate the movement of such celestial bodies. 传统浑仪由多重同心 环圈组成。元代郭守敬研 制出的“简仪”，在天文仪器发展史上具有十分重要的地位 。他把传统浑仪中的多重环圈简化成五个，分装成赤道装置和地平装置两个部分，这样一Huntianyi Jianyi1. 浑天仪 2. 简仪 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 111来，运转灵活，更便于观 测。简仪是世界上最早安有赤道坐标装置的天文仪 器。 Traditional hunyi consists of multiple concentric rings, and the " jianyi " developed by Guo Shoujing of the Yuan Dynasty holds a very important position in the history of the development of astronomic instruments. Guo simplified the multiple rings of traditional hunyi into five, dividing them into the parts of tropical apparatus and horizontal device. The new instrument was agile in operation and more convenient for observation. Jianyi is the earliest astronomic instrument marked with the coordinates of the equator in the world. 浑象创制于汉代。 它的主要组成部分是一个空心铜球， 球面上刻着用于量度天体位置的网格，以及代表亮星的小 圆点。 整个铜球可以绕一根金属轴转动， 一周代表一昼夜。使用浑象，可以直观、形象地了解日、月、星辰的相互位置和运动规律。东汉科学家张衡除发明了世界上第一台地动仪外，还发明了中国古代第一台自动的天文仪器——水运浑象，对后世产生利用水力转动的天文仪器有很大的启 发。 Hunxiang was developed in the Han Dynasty. Its major component was a hollow copper ball, on whose surface were engraved both a grid indicating the positions of celestial bodies and dots standing for bright stars. The whole copper ball could turn around a metal stick, with one circle representing one night and one day. Hunxiang could vividly show the mutual positions and movement rules of the sun, the moon and other stars. Zhang Heng, a scientist of the Eastern Han Dynasty, apart from his invention of the first seismograph in the world, had also invented the hydraulic hunxiang, the first autonomous astronomic instrument of ancient China, which greatly inspired the emergence of hydraulic astronomic instruments of later generations. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 112中国古代数学以擅长计算 著称。大约在商周时期，就已 经有了四则运算。到了春秋战国， 整数和分数的四则运算 （即加减乘除出现在同一个算式中）已相当完备。中国古代数学以用于计算的小木棍—— “算筹”为主要计算工具，以十进制的记数系统进行运算。这个体系在自身的发展历程中，也为人类文明的发展做出了特殊的贡献。 The mathematics of ancient China was famous for the accuracy of its calculations. In China, the rudiments of arithmetic can date back to about the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the arithmetic of integers and fractions (with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division appearing in the same equation) had been fairly developed. The mathematics of ancient China used chips as its computing device, employing a decimal numeration system to calculate. The development of this system has made a special contribution to the development of human civilizations. 十进制 Decimal System 最晚在商代，中国人就已经发明了“十进制”记数法。 我们从商代陶器上的文字和甲骨文中发现，当时已经使用 一、二、三、四、五、六、七、八、九、十、百、千、万等 13 个数字来记 10 万以内的任何自然数 ①了。这是古代世 界中最先进、最科学的记数法，对世界科学和文化的发展有着不可估量的作用。Great Contributions to Mathematics伟大的数学贡献 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 自然数：指零和大于零 的整数，即 0，1，2，3，…… ① Natural number: It refers to zero and any integer greater than zero. 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 113The Chinese invented a "decimal" numeration system in the Shang Dynasty at the latest. Among the characters on pottery, tortoise shells and animal bones of the Shang Dynasty, we can find that people at that time had already used 13 numbers, namely one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, hundred, thousand, and ten thousand to numerate any natural number ①. This was the most advanced and the most reasonable numeration system in the ancient times, and had played an immeasurable role to the development of world science and culture. 九九歌 Chinese Multiplication Table 出现于春秋时期的正整数乘法口诀 ——“九九歌”， 是先进的十进制记数法和中国语言文字的完美结合。它作 为数学普及和发展的重要方法， 一直沿用到今天。 古今 “九九歌”的变化是，古代“九九歌”从“九九八十一”开始，到“二二如四”结束；今天的“九九歌”是从“一一得一”开始，到“九九八十一” 结束。 The Chinese multiplication table emerging in the Spring and Autumn Period is a perfect combination of the advanced decimal numeration system and Chinese language. As an important method for the popularization and development of math, it is still in use today. The difference between today's Chinese multiplication table and that of ancient times is that the table of old times started with "9×9=81" and ended at "2×2=4," and today's table from "1×1=1" to "9×9=81." 《九章算术》 The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 《九章算术》大约成书于公元 1 世纪，对中国古代数 学的发展产生了非常深刻的影响。全书采用应用题②集的形 式，共收 246 个例题，分九章介绍。内容涉及算术、代数、 几何等方面。其中多元一次方程组解法的记载，是世界上最早的，比印度早 400 多年，比欧洲早 1,300 多年。关于分数概念及其运算、正负数的概念、加减法则、开平方以及二次方程的解法等，也是世界数学史上最早的。 The Nine chapters on the Mathematical Art was completed around the first century or so, exerting a very profound influence on the development of mathematics in ancient China. The book lays out an approach to mathematics that centers on finding the most general methods of solving practical problems ②, collecting 246 problems and Chips used for counting — the most ancient computing device in ancient China The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art1. 中国最古老的计算工具——算筹 2.《九章算术》书影 2 小注解·Footnotes ② 应用题：跟人们的生活、 生产直接相关的算数题目。 ② Practical problems: Arithmetic problems directly related to people's life and production. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 114classifying them into nine chapters. It touches on arithmetic, algebra, geometry and so forth, and its records of the solving of multi -variable linear equation group is the earliest in the world —more than 400 years earlier than in India and more than 1,300 years earlier than in Europe. Furthermore, its concept of fractions and their operation, its concepts of positive and negative numbers and related addition and subtraction rules, its operation of square roots, and its solving of quadratic equations are also the earliest records in the history of mathematics in the world. 《九章算术》是举世公认的古典数学名著之一。它的 出现标志着中国数学体系的初步形成。隋唐时期，《九章 算术》 就已传入朝鲜半岛和日本， 现已被译成了多种文字。 The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is one of the world's most recognized mathematical classics, and its emergence marked the preliminary formation of the mathematical system of China. This book was spread into the Korean Peninsula and Japan as early as in the Sui and Tang dynasties, and now has been translated into several languages. 圆周率 Ratio of the Circumference of a Circle to the Diameter 公元2 6 3年 ，数学家刘徽 （Liú Huī） 创立了割圆 术 ③，最早把极限的思想应用于解决数学问题，求得圆周率 π ≈ 3.1416。南北朝时期的祖冲之在此基础上，进行了繁 复的推算，求得圆周率 3.1415926 ＜ π ＜ 3.1415927，成为当时世界上最精确的圆周率数值。祖冲之求得的圆周率数据，远远地走在世界的前面，直至 1,000 年以后，西方的数学家才达到和超过祖冲之的成就。为了纪念祖冲之，人们把他算出的圆周率近似值称为“祖率”。 In 263 AD, Liu Hui, a mathematician, invented the division of a circle③. He was the first to apply the thought of limits into mathematic problems, and worked out the approximate value of pi as 3.1416. On the basis of Liu Hui's calculation, Zu Chongzhi of the Southern and Northern Dynasties carried out complicated computations, concluding that the value of pi falls between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927; that was the most accurate value of pi in the world at that time. Zu took a leading position far advanced in the world, and not until more than 1,000 year later did scientists in the West catch up to and surpass the achievements of Zu Chongzhi. For the memory of Zu Chongzhi, people call the approximate value that Zu had worked out "Zu Chongzhi Ratio."Zu Chongzhi An illustration of the division of a circle1. 祖冲之 2. 割圆术示意图小注解·Footnotes ③ 割圆术：用圆内接正多 边形的周长，去无限逼近圆周 长， 并以此求出圆周率的方法。 ③ Division of a circle: A method to approach infinitely the circumference of a circle with the circumference of an inscribed regular polygon and thus calculate the ratio of the circle. 21 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 115Abacus and Calculation with an Abacus 算盘与珠算 算盘，是中国古代劳动人民的伟大创 造，其结构简单，算法便捷，被誉为“世 界上最古老的计算机”。 The abacus was a great invention of the laboring people of ancient China. With its simple structure and quick computing method, it is praised as "the most ancient computer in the world." 算盘是中国人在长期使用算筹的基础上发明的。古时 候， 人们使用算筹 （也就是一些小木棍） 来帮助计算。 后来， 随着生产和商业经济的发展，需要计算的数目越来越大，用算筹计算受到了限制，于是，人们渐渐发明了更先进的计算工具——算盘。 The abacus was invented on the basis that Chinese used the counting -rod for a long period. In ancient times, people used small rods to count. Later, with the development of productivity and commodity economy, the amount requiring calculation was greater, and calculation with counting -rods was limited. Thus, people invented a more advanced counter —the abacus. 算盘是长方形的，四周是木框，里面固定着一根根小 竹棍，小竹棍上穿着木珠，中间的一根横梁把算盘分成上 下两部分：上半部每个算珠代表“5”，下半部每个算珠代表“1”。现存算盘的形式并不统一，最常见的是上半部有两个算珠、下半部有五个算珠的“二五珠”算盘，另外还有“一五珠”“一四珠”等等。中国历史博物馆还藏有广东出土的清代二六珠算盘，十分罕见。 The abacus is rectangular with a wooden frame on the four sides and small rods fixed inside stringing wooden beads; a beam across the middle separates the abacus into two parts: each rod has two beads An abacus with two beads in the upper deck and five ones in the lower1. 二五珠算盘1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 116on its upper deck, each representing five, and five beads on the lower part, each representing one. The extant abacuses vary in shape; the most commonly seen have two beads in the upper part and five in the lower parts. Moreover, some have one bead in the upper part and five beads in the lower part or one bead in the upper part and four beads in the lower part. Particularly, the Museum of Chinese Histor y houses an abacus from the Qing Dynasty, which was excavated in Guangdong and has two beads in the upper part and six beads in the lower part. Such a style of abacus is seldom seen. 用算盘来进行计算叫“珠算”。珠算有对应“加、减、 乘、除”运算的法则，统称珠算法则。相对一般运算来看， 熟练的珠算不逊色于计算器，尤其在加减法方面。算盘从明代起取代了算筹，成为中国社会主要的计算工具，对促进经济发展、 推动科技进步， 发挥了不可估量的作用。 另外，算盘还传播到了朝鲜、日本、美国、新加坡、马来西亚等国家和地区，成为世界文化的重要组成部分。 Computation done by way of the abacus is called "abacus computation." Abacus computation has its own rules of "addition, subtraction, multiplication and division," which are called the rules of abacus computation in general. For ordinary counting, skillful abacus computation is not inferior to computer, especially in additive and subtractive computation. After abacuses replaced counting chips and became the major counting devices of the Chinese society in the Ming Dynasty (1368 -1644 AD), their use had played an immeasurable role in accelerating economic development and pushing forward scientific and technological progress. Furthermore, the abacus gradually spread into Korea, Japan, America, Singapore, Malaysia, and other countries and regions, becoming an important component of world culture. 随着电子计算机技术的迅猛发展，算盘在社会生活、 生产中的计算功能已逐步被计算机替代。但源于传统算盘 的珠心算①，以其独特的启发智力的功能，一直受到人们的 重视。 With the rapid development of electronic computers, abacuses gradually lose their computing role in social life and production, but the abacus -based mental arithmetic①, which is based on traditional abacuses, has been given much importance because of its unique function in intelligence development.An abacus with one bead in the upper part and four in the lower The use of an abacus1. 一四珠算盘 2. 拨打算盘2 小注解·Footnotes ① 珠心算：是将算盘的形 象，移植到大脑当中，通过形 象的思维进行计算，有利于促进小孩子计算能力的提高。 ① Abacus-based mental arithmetic: To do abacus-based mental arithmetic, a person visualizes an abacus in his mind, calculating through figurative thinking. This is conducive to improving children's counting ability.1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 117中医药学是讲究整体观念， 具有独特理论的系统科学。 春秋战国时期，中医药学体系基本形成，后来经过不断地 发展和完善， 不仅成为中国文化史上一份极其宝贵的遗产，对世界医药学的发展也贡献巨大。 Traditional Chinese medicine is a systematic science which is particularly concerned with wholeness and carries a unique theory. Its theoretic system was largely formed in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and was constantly developed and improved afterwards. It is not only a precious piece of legacy in the history of Chinese culture, but has made enormous contributions to the development of world medicine. 中医学把人体看成是自然界整体的一部分，治疗时， 不仅考虑人体本身，还非常重视疾病与人体自身的精神状 态、生活状态以及外部环境，特别是气候变化的关系，进而根据病人的发病原因和症状等，进行全面分析和治疗。战国时期出现的《黄帝内经》，是中国现存最早的医学理论著作。它系统地总结了春秋战国及以前的医疗经验，并为中医学体系的建立与发展奠定了理论基础。 东汉 “医圣”Unique Tradition Chinese Medical Science 自成体系的中医药学 A picture of the ancient copy of the Compendium of Materia MedicaA picture of the ancient copy of the Canon of Medicine of the Yellow Emperor 2.《本草纲目》古籍图1.《黄帝内经》古籍图1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 118张仲景的 《伤寒杂病论》 ， 是中医学发展史上影响最大的著作之一。 Traditional Chinese medicine views the human body as a part of the nature as a whole. In treatment, it not only takes into account the human body itself, but pays much attention to the relations of diseases to the patient's psychology and living habits, and to the outside environment, especially to climatic changes, and then carries out all -round analysis and treatment in reference to the causes and symptoms of the diseases of the patient. The Canon of Medicine of the Yellow Emperor , which occurred in the Warring States Period, is the earliest extant medical book of China. It systematically summarized medical experience in and before the Spring and Autumn and the Warring State periods (770 -221 BC), laying a theoretical foundation for traditional Chinese medical science. The Febrile and Other Diseases , written by Zhang Zhongjing, a renowned doctor of the Eastern Han Dynasty, is one of the most influential works in the history of traditional Chinese medicine. “望、闻、问、切”是中医诊断病情的传统方法。望， 是观察病人的外表，如脸色和精神状态；闻，是听病人发 出的声音，闻散发的气味，即听声嗅味；问，是询问病人的发病过程和状况；切，是摸查病人脉搏跳动的情况。通过切脉来诊断病情就是脉诊。脉诊历史悠久，被誉为“中医学祖师”的战国名医扁鹊尤其擅长。脉诊的应用表明，中国古代的医生已经掌握了脉搏跳动情况与身体各部位的关系。将麻醉药物——“麻沸散”用于外科手术的世界第一人，是东汉名医华佗，他由此被尊称为“外科鼻祖”。 "Observation, auscultation and olfaction, interrogation, and p ulse feeling and palpation" are the traditional diagnosing methods of Chinese medicine. Observation means to observe the appearance of the patient, for example, his countenance and the sign of his vigor or lack Traditional Chinese medicines A picture of diagnosing diseases through pulses in traditional Chinese medicine1. 几味常见的中药 2. 中医切脉1 当归 黄芪 鹿茸 甘草 冬虫夏草党参 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 119of vigor; auscultation and olfaction refer to listening to the sounds and smells let out by the patient; interrogation means to enquire about the course of disease and status quo of the patient; and pulse feeling and palpation involve inspection of the patient's pulse. Pulse feeling and palpation has a long history, and Bian Que, a famous doctor of the Warring States Period who is reputed to be the "founder of Chinese medicine," was especially good at it. The application of pulse feeling and palpation indicates that the physicians of ancient China had grasped the relationships between pulse and each part of the human body. Hua Tuo, a reputed doctor of the Eastern Han Dynasty, was the first in the world to use anesthetic —mafeisan in surgery, and was thus called the "founder of surgery." 以植物、动物和矿物为原料的中药，不但丰富了世界 医药学体系，而且还被广泛应用于养生、美容等领域。中 国古代关于药物和方剂①的专著很多。唐代“药王”孙思邈 的《千金方》共收医方 6,500 多个，被誉为中国最早的“临床医学百科全书”；明代李时珍的《本草纲目》收录药物1,892 种，绘图 1,109 幅，医方 11,096 个，更是堪称古代世界的药物大全。 Traditional Chinese medicines mainly come from plants, animals and minerals. These medicines have not only enriched the world medical system, but are widely used in the field of regimen and cosmetology. There were many monographs about medicines and prescriptions ① in ancient China, for example, the Essential Formulas for Emergencies [Worth] a Thousand Pieces of Gold compiled by Sun Simiao of the Tang Dynasty collects more than 6,500 prescriptions, and has been praised as "an encyclopedia of clinical medicine," and the Compendium of Materia Medica written by Li Shizhen of the Ming Dynasty (1368 -1644 AD) includes 1,892 medicines, 1,109 illustrations and 11,096 prescriptions, quite deserving to be called a complete collection of medicines in the ancient world. 小注解·Footnotes ① 方剂：中医指根据临床 需要， 选择适当药物及其用量， 指明制法和用法的规范化药方。 ① Prescriptions: In traditional Chinese medicine, a prescription is one that in accordance with clinical requirement, selects suitable medicines and dose, and specifies how to make and use it.2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 120针灸术 Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy 针灸术是中国独创的一种传统治疗方法。古老的针灸 术包括针法和灸法两种。针法是用特制的针，按一定的穴 位①刺入病人体内，用捻、提等手法来治疗疾病。灸法是把 干艾草捣碎后点燃，按一定的穴位熏灼皮肤，利用热的刺激来治疗疾病。针灸术大约起源于新石器时代，在春秋时期已得到广泛应用。 Acupuncture and moxibustion therapy, with a history of thousands of years, is unique to China. As its name suggests, the acupuncture and moxibustion therapy involves the use of jabbing with needles and the placement of burning crushed dry moxa. In acupuncture therapy, specially made needles are used to jab into certain acupuncture points ① of the body of a patient, curing diseases by twirling or lifting the needles. For moxibustion, dry moxa is crushed and then lit up to fume and scorch certain acupuncture points on the skin, curing diseases by the stimulation of heat. The acupuncture and moxibustion originated sometime around the New Stone Age, and began to be widely used during the Spring and Autumn Period. 针灸术的基本原理是：担负着运送全身气血的经络， 遍布人体各个部位，起着沟通身体内外、上下的功能。针 灸人体表面的某些穴位，通过经络对身体起刺激作用，进而调整人体内部的机能，提高防病能力，达到治病效果。Unique Therapies in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Acupuncture, Moxibustion, Massage, Scraping Treatment and Cupping Therapy中医的特色疗法： 针灸、推拿、刮痧和拔火罐 A bronze human figure marked with acupuncture points1. 针灸铜人模型 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 121The rationale for acupuncture and moxibustion therapy is this: Main and collateral channels as a network of passages for the circulation of energy and blood are all over the human body, and function to connect the external and internal, and the upper and lower of the human body. To jab or scorch certain acupuncture points on the surface of the human body can stimulate the human body through the meridians, then adjust the internal function inside the human body, improve its ability to prevent diseases, and cure diseases. 针灸术早在汉唐时期就传到日本、朝鲜等国，宋元后 又相继传到阿拉伯和欧洲，至今仍受到重视。 The acupuncture and moxibustion therapy spread to Japan and Korea as early as in the Han and Tang Dynasties, and to Arabia and Europe in sequence in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and is still thought of highly up to now. 推拿 Massage 推拿，又叫“按摩”，是用手等肢体部位，在人体的 穴位或身体表面推、按、捏、揉等，以达到防病治病、保 健美容的目的，属于中医外治法。 In massage therapy, an aspect of traditional Chinese medicine, a massager uses his hands and other limb parts to push, press, nip and knead the acupuncture points or the surface of the human body for the purpose of disease prevention, healing, health improvement and cosmetology. It belongs to the external therapy of traditional Chinese medicine. 中国推拿源远流长。 隋唐时期， 推拿疗法发展至鼎盛， 并传入朝鲜、日本、印度等国家。中国推拿学作为一门自 然医学，具有明显的创伤小、副作用少等优点。随着人们对非药物、无创伤、无毒副作用的自然疗法的重视，中国推拿疗法被越来越多国家的人们所认识和接受。 Chinese medical massage has a long history. It reached its climax and was introduced into Korea, Japan and India during the Sui and Tang dynasties. As a kind of natural therapy, Chinese medical massage has the strong points of less trauma and fewer side effects. As people are attaching much importance to natural therapy with no medicine, trauma or side effects, the Chinese massage therapy techniques are recognized and accepted in more and more countries.小知识 · Small Encyclopedia 1027 年，宋代医官王惟一 创造了针灸术史上一大奇迹。 他设计铸造了两具针灸铜人模型，并在铜人身上精细地刻了十二经脉和 354 个穴位，供学习针灸术使用。这是中国最早的医用铜人模型，也是中国针灸教育事业上的一个创举。宋代王惟一所铸的针灸铜人尽管已经不复存在，但他为针灸学所做的贡献却是功不可没的。如今的塑料或橡胶针灸模型，便是从他的铜人模型脱胎而来 的。 In 1027 AD, Wang Weiyi, a medical official of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), created a miracle in the history of acupuncture and moxibustion therapy. He designed and made two bronze human figures marked with acupuncture points, carefully carved 12 channels and vessels and 354 acupuncture points on the figures for people to use when learning the therapy. This was the earliest bronze human figures for medical purpose in China, and a pioneering work for the education of acupuncture and moxibustion therapy of China. The bronze human figures made by Wang Weiyi have been lost, but his contributions to acupuncture and moxibustion therapy are undeniable. Today's plastic or rubbery human figures with acupuncture points are modeled on Wang's bronze human figures. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 122 刮痧 Scraping Treatment 在中国古代， 刮痧疗法长期流传于民间。 人们用铜钱、 麻线等蘸上水或香油，刮患者的胸、背等部位，使局部皮 肤充血，从而减轻内部炎症。 Scraping treatment was long popular among people in ancient China. People used copper coins and twine dipped in water or sesame oil to scrape the chest or backs of a patient, alleviating internal inflammation by making local hyperemia on the skin. 今天， 刮痧疗法已由原来粗浅、 直观、 单一的经验疗法， 发展为有系统中医理论指导的自然疗法之一。工具多采用 水牛角和玉石制成的专门刮痧板，适用范围扩大到消除疲劳、减肥、美容保健等领域。 Today, scraping treatment has developed from the previous superficial, simple empirical treatment into one of natural therapies guided by a systematic Chinese medical theory. The tools used in scraping treatment are usually special plates made of buffalo horns or jade, and the therapy is applicable to eliminating fatigue, losing weight, cosmetology and keeping fit. 拔火罐 Cupping Therapy 拔火罐，俗称“拔罐子”，是用竹罐、陶罐、玻璃罐 等作为工具，借助热力排去罐中的空气，产生负压以吸附 于皮肤表面造成淤血现象， 从而达到治疗的目的。 古时候，火罐疗法多用于外科化脓性炎症， 后来扩大到肺结核、 风湿，以及感冒、 消化不良、 失眠等病症。 由于这种方法简便易行、效果明显，所以在民间历代沿用，至今不衰，连一些外国人也很感兴趣。 In cupping therapy, cups made of bamboo, pottery or glass are heated and attached to the skin by means of a heat vacuum, causing hyperemia and thus curing diseases. In ancient times, cupping therapy was used for the surgical treatment of inflammation with pyogenesis, and was later extended to tuberculosis, rheumatism, rheum, dyspepsy, insomnia and so forth. This therapy is simple and effective, hence being passed down from generation to generation, and is still popular today, even arousing interest among some foreigners.小注解·Footnotes ① 穴位：中医学上指人体 上可以进行针灸的部位，多是 神经末梢密集或比较粗的神经纤维经过的地方。 ① Acupuncture points: In traditional Chinese medicine, they refer to the points of the human body where acupuncture and moxibustion therapy can be applied. They are usually places where there are dense nerve bundles or thicker nerve fibers. Several kinds of commonly used scraping plates Instruments in cupping therapy1. 常见的几种刮痧板 2. 火罐器1 2 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 123中国农业起源很早，据考证， 在距今 7,000 年前的浙江省余姚市 “河姆渡遗址”中，发现了世界上最早栽培的稻谷。几千年来，中国始终坚持以农业立国，重视农业生产经验和生产技术的研究与总结。在众多的农业古籍当中， 《齐民要术》和《农政全书》是最具特色和代表性的农学专著。 Agriculture started very early in China. At the Hemudu Ruins in Yuyao City, Zhejiang Province, which came into being 7,000 years ago, the earliest artificially grown paddy in the world has been discovered. For thousands of years, China has maintained agriculture as the base of the country, attaching importance to the research and summarization of agricultural experience and techniques. Among its many ancient books on agriculture, the Essential Skills to Benefit the People and the Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology are the most characteristic and most representative monographs. 《齐民要术》是公元 6 世纪中国出现的一部空前伟大 的农书， 是北魏时期著名农学家贾思勰 （ Jiǎ Sīxié ） 编写的。 这部巨著，系统总结了黄河流域的农业生产经验，阐述了 要根据不同地区、不同季节来进行农业生产的原则。除各Agricultural Classics: Qi Min Yao Shu (Essential Skills to Benefit the People ) and Nongzheng Quanshu (Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology )农学经典 ： 《齐民要术》 与 《农政全书》 Farming scene in the Qi Min Yao Shu1.《齐民要术》中的农耕场景 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 124项农业生产技术知识外， 书中还介绍了农产品的加工、 贮藏、 烹调等技术。《齐民要术》是一部具有高度科学价值的农业生产技术著作，是中国现存最早、最完整、最系统的农业百科全书， 在世界农学史、 生物学史上都占有重要地位。 The Essential Skills to Benefit the People is an unprecedented agricultural work written in China during the 6th century, compiled and written by Jia Sixie, a famous agriculturalist of the Northern Wei Dynasty. This book summarizes the experience of agricultural production in the drainage of the Yellow River, expounding the principle to carry out agricultural production in accordance to the different conditions of different regions and seasons. In addition to the knowledge of various techniques in agricultural production, the book has also introduced the techniques concerning the processing, storing and cooking of agricultural products. The Essential Skills to Benefit the People is a book of agricultural techniques with high scientific value and the extant earliest, most complete and most systematic agricultural encyclopedia in China, holding an important position in the history of world agriculture and biology. 《农政全书》是明代著名科学家徐光启编著的。这部 农学著作共 60 卷约 70 万字，参考和引用文献 200 多种， 规模空前宏大。内容涉及农业耕作、土地开垦、水利建设、食品制造、果树技艺以及农政思想等众多方面。另外，书中还介绍了西方科学，如提倡种植甘薯等外来作物。《农政全书》是一部名副其实的农业百科全书。 The Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology was compiled and written by Xu Guangqi, a famous scientist of the Ming Dynasty. This agricultural work contains 700,000 Chinese characters or so, is consisted of 60 volumes, and has referred to and quoted from more than 200 kinds of literature. It is unprecedented in length. The book includes agricultural cultivation, land reclamation, water conservancy construction, food processing, fruit culture, policies and thoughts about agriculture. Moreover, it introduces Western science, advocating the growing of sweet potatoes and other foreign crops. The Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology is an agricultural encyclopedia worthy of its name.A photo of the Nongzheng Quanshu1.《农政全书》书影 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 125中国自古以农立国，兴 修水利、防洪防涝就成了非 常重要的事。 China has been based on agriculture since remote antiquity, hence water conservancy project construction, flood prevention and waterlogging prevention is very important. 位于成都平原西部的岷 江（Mínjiānɡ ）上的都江堰 水利工程，建于公元前 256 年，是战国时期秦国官员李冰和他的儿子主持修建的一座 大型水利灌溉工程。 The Dujiangyan Irrigation Project, located in the Minjiang River in the west of the Chengdu Plain, was a large -sized irrigation project constructed in 256 BC by Li Bing, satrap of the Shu Prefecture of the Qin State, and his son. 都江堰渠道工程由 “鱼嘴分水堤” “飞沙堰溢洪道” 和 “宝 瓶口进水口”三个主体部分组成。鱼嘴分水堤是都江堰的 分水工程，外形如同鱼嘴，把岷江分成内、外两江。西边的外江主要用于排洪；东边的内江主要用于灌溉。飞沙堰溢洪道在设计上也十分巧妙， 它既可以利用离心力的作用，将岷江上游带来的砂石抛入外江，又能够控制水量，从而确保成都平原的安全。宝瓶口进水口是控制内江进水的咽喉， 它是人工凿成的， 因形状像瓶口而且功能奇特而得名。内江水流进宝瓶口后，被一分再分，形成灌溉渠系。宝瓶The Dujiangyan Irrigation Project古为今用的水利工程——都江堰 小知识 · Small Encyclopedia 无坝引水：适用于水源地 高于用水地的地理条件，不用 建筑水坝，利用河道地形和水力特点布置设施，从河道引水的水利工程形式。 Water diversion without dams: Suitable to the geographical conditions in which the water source is higher than the land where the water is used. In such a project, no dam is built, and water is diverted from the riverway by means of terrains and waterpower itself.The Dujiangyan Irrigation Project1. 都江堰水利工程1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 126口还有一段低平的河道，河道底下有一条人工暗 渠，用于保障成都工业用水，当洪水超过警戒线时，这段河道又可以自动把多余的水排入外江。 The Dujiangyan Project comprises three major parts, namely the Yuzui or Fish Mouth Levee, the Feishayan or Flying Sand Weir and the Baopingkou or Bottle -neck Channel. The Yuzui is the water diversion part of the Dujiangyan Project. With its external shape resembling the mouth of a fish, it divides the Minjiang River into the inner and outer parts. The outer course in the west is mainly used to discharge flood, and the inner course in the east mainly for irrigation. The Feishayan is also ingeniously designed. It makes use of centrifugal forces to transfer the sands carried from the upper reaches of the Minjiang River into the outer course, and meanwhile controls the volume of the flow, so that it can guarantee the security of the Chengdu Plain. The Baopingkou is a gorge controlling water inflow into the inner course. It was artificially dug, and got its name because of its shape and peculiar function. After it enters the Baopingkou, the water flows along the inner course are diverted and divided again and again, forming an irrigative system in the Chengdu Plain. In the Baopingkou, there is also a low and level section of riverway, under which lies an artificial culvert guaranteeing the industrial water consumption of Chengdu. When the flood exceeds a warning line, this section of riverway can autonomously discharge redundant water into the outer stream. 岷江贯穿成都平原，水流量大、流速湍（ tuān）急， 曾危害成都平原。都江堰水利工程修建以后，科学地解决 了江水自动分流、自动排沙、控制进水流量等问题，将岷江水流化险为夷，变害为利，使四川平原成为无旱涝之忧的“天府之国”。为了纪念李冰父子，人们修建了二王庙供后人瞻仰。 The Minjiang River runs through the Chengdu Plain; with enormous and rapid water flows, it once brought disaster to the plains. After the Dujiangyan water conservancy project was launched and scientifically solved the problems of autonomous diversion of waterflow, autonomous discharge of sands and control of inflow, it transformed the threats of the Minjiang River into benefits and the Chengdu Plain into a "blessed land" free from drought and waterlogging. To commemorate Li Bing and his son, people built the Two Kings' Temple. The Two Kings'Temple in the Dujiangyan Scenic Spot1. 都江堰景区——二王庙 1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 127在中国历史上，棉花种植从 宋代开始在全国各地得到普遍推 广，棉纺织业也随之发展。13 世纪棉纺织业开始在松江地区（今上海一带）发展起来，对此做出巨大贡献的是著名的棉纺织革新家——黄道婆。 In the history of China, the cultivation of cotton began to be popularized in the Song Dynasty, and the cotton textile industry consequently developed. In the 13th century, the cotton textile industry began to develop around the Songjiang area (today's Shanghai), and Huang Daopo, an innovator of the cotton textile industry, made considerable contributions to it. 黄道婆生于宋末元初，松江 乌泥泾（上海华泾镇）人，是中 国古代著名的棉纺织专家。她年轻时流落到海南岛。海南岛盛产棉花，那里的黎族妇女很早就从事棉纺织业。黄道婆和她们一起生活，结下了深厚的友谊，也学到了一整套种植和纺织棉花的技术。30 年后，两鬓斑白的黄道婆回到家乡。她把在海南岛学会的棉纺织技术，毫无保留地传授给松江的父老乡亲。同时，她还推广和改进了很多纺织机械，并成功地制成了当时世界上最先进的纺纱工具——三锭脚踏纺棉车 ①，从而大大提高了劳动效率。另外，她还把黎族先进的Huang Daopo and the Cotton Textile Industry of China黄道婆与中国棉纺织业 The Memorial House of Huang Daopo1. 黄道婆纪念馆 1小注解·Footnotes ① 锭 ：即锭子 。是纺纱 机上的主要部件，用来把纤维 捻成纱并把纱绕在筒管上成一定形状。在三锭脚踏纺棉车发明之前，通常使用单锭手摇纺棉 车。 ① Spindles: A spindle is a major part of a spinning machine. It is used to twiddle fiber into yarn and coil it on a canister to form a certain shape. Before the pedal spinning wheel with three spindles was invented, the manual spinning wheel with a single spindle was widely used. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 128纺织技术和汉族传统的织造 工艺结合在一起，织成了配有各种图案的被褥等物品，被人们称为“乌泥泾被”。 Huang Daopo, a native of Wunijing, Songjiang (today's Huajing Town, Shanghai), lived in the late Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 AD) and the early Yuan Dynasty (1271 -1368 AD), and was a famous cotton textile expert of ancient China. When she was young, she was left stranded in Hainan Island. The area had an abundance of cotton, and the Li women there had started a textile industry long ago. Huang Daopo lived with the Li women and learned from them the techniques of planting, spinning and weaving cotton. Thirty years later, gray at the temples, Huang Daopo returned to her hometown. She taught people in Songjiang all the textile technique she had learnt in Hainan. Meanwhile, she also popularized and innovated in textile machines, successively making the most advanced textile tool of the time, a pedal spinning wheel with three spindles ①, which greatly increased efficiency. In addition, she combined the advanced textile technique of the Li ethnic group with the traditional weaving techniques of the Han people, producing textiles such as bedding with various patterns called "Wunijing Bedding." 黄道婆返乡后的举动，使生产落后的松江地区一跃成 为先进的棉纺织业中心。在她逝世后，当地人民还编写了 歌谣来纪念这位了不起的古代巧妇。 Thanks to Huang Daopo's efforts after her return to her hometown, the struggling Songjiang area went through a leap in development to become an advanced center of the cotton textile industry. After her death, local people compiled a ballad to commemorate this legendarily clever woman. A pedal spinning wheel of ancient times1. 古代脚踏纺棉车1 古代科技篇 Ancient Science and Technology 129明代末年，中国产生了一部全面系统论述当时农业和 手工业生产技术和经验的专著，它就是宋应星的《天工开 物》。这是世界上第一部关于农业和手工业生产的综合性著作，在世界上也享有很高声誉，被东西方学者称作“中国 17 世纪的工艺百科全书”。 The late Ming Dynasty witnessed the advent of a monograph that systematically summarized the techniques and experiences in agriculture and handcraft in China at that time, The Exploitation of the Works of Nature written by Song Yingxing. It is the first comprehensive work about agriculture and handcraft production in the world. It has a high reputation in the world, and is praised as the "craftwork encyclopedia of China in the 17th century" both by Oriental and Western scholars. 《天工开物》全书 18 卷，包括作物栽培、养蚕、纺织、 染色、 粮食加工、 煮盐、 制糖、 酿酒、 烧瓷、 冶铸、 舟车制造、 烧制石灰、榨油、造纸、采矿、兵器、颜料、珠玉采集等，并附有 120 多幅插图。几乎论及当时所有重要的农业和手工业部门的生产技术和生产过程，特别是对先进生产技术的介绍。如：在农业方面，记有培育优良稻种和杂交蚕蛾的方法，还最早记述了早稻在干旱条件下变异为旱稻，从而在世界生物变异理论上写下了光辉的一页 ； 在化学方面，宋应星已经认识到各种金属不同的活泼程度，以及利用这种差异来分离金属的办法，另外，书中还对“质量守恒”原理做了初步论述，比法国人拉瓦锡确立的这个原理早了30 多年；在冶炼方面，记录了炼铁联合作业，炼锌、铸钱中国 17 世纪的工艺百科全书 —《天工开物》 Tiangong Kaiwu (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature ) —A Craftwork Encyclopedia of China in the 17th Century 1.《天工开物》封面及插图 1 The cover of an ancient copy of The Exploitation of the Works of Nature 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 130等方法，其中有不少工艺至今仍在应用；在纺织方 面，较早记述了山羊绒可用于织造；在采矿方面，有排除煤矿瓦斯的方法；等。 以上所载的生产技术，都是当时世界上首屈一指的。 The Exploitation of the Works of Nature contains 18 volumes, involving the cultivation of crops, the raising of silkworms, textile, dyeing, the processing of grains, the making of sugar, the brewing of liquor, the firing of pottery, the smelting of metal, the making of boats and carts, the making of lime, the squeezing of oil, mining, the making of weapons, pigment, the collection of pearls and jade, and so forth. It is appended with more than 120 pieces of illustrations, and involves the techniques and production processes of all the important agricultural and handcraft sections in use at that time, especially the introduction of advanced production techniques; therefore its significance cannot be understated. For example, regarding agriculture, it records how to cultivate excellent paddy and crossbreed silkworms, and is the earliest literature about early rice's variation into dry rice in the condition of drought, hence leaving a splendid page in the world theory of biomutation; for chemistry, Song Yingxing had realized the difference of various metal in vibrancy and how to refine various metal by means of such differences. Besides, the book preliminarily discusses the law of "conservation of mass" — more than three decades before Frenchman Antoine -Laurent de Lavoisier (1743 -1794) finally discovered it. In the field of metallurgy, the book records the methods of teamwork in iron smelting, zinc smelting and the casting of coins, and many of the techniques it describes are still in use even today. For textiles, the book ranks among the earliest ones to record that cashmere can be used for textile use. And for mining, it records how to eliminate gas in coal mines. The above mentioned production techniques recorded in the book were all the most advanced in the world at that time. 《天工开物》刊出后，很快传到日本，并被译成法文、 德文、英文等多种文字，受到世界各国的重视，对当地的 生产和科学都产生过许多重要的影响。达尔文就把其中养蚕技术的有关内容作为人工选择、自然进化的一个重要例 证。 After its publication, The Exploitation of the Works of Nature was soon spread to Japan, and was translated into French, German and English, receiving much attention in many countries, and exerting important influence in many aspects of the production and science in those countries. For example, Charles Darwin read the content about the sericulture technique of China in the book as an important evidence of artificial selection and natural evolvement. A page of an ancient copy of The Exploitation of the Works of Nature1.《天工开物》内页图 1 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 131 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 甲骨文 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 132中国是一个由五十六个民族组成的多民族国家，每个民族都有自己的语言，占全国 人口 90% 以上的汉族所使用的语言是汉语，汉语是世界上最古老的语言之一，也是当今 世界作为母语使用人数最多的语言。 汉语属于汉藏语系， 有声调。 汉语口语包括多种方言，而书面语相对统一。为了消除方言隔阂，方便沟通，20 世纪 50 年代，中国政府开始着手现代汉语规范化工作，大力推广普通话。 China is a multi -ethnic country composed of 56 ethnic groups, each of which has its own language; in particular, the Han people, who account for over 90% of the total population of the country, speak Chinese. Chinese is one of the most ancient languages in the world, and is used by the largest number of people as a mother tongue in the world. The Chinese language belongs to the Sino -Tibetan family, and is a tonal language. Spoken Chinese language consists of many dialects, while its written language is relatively uniform. In order to eliminate difficulties caused by dialects and facilitate communication, the Chinese government began to regulate modern Chinese language and vigorously popularize standard Chinese pronunciation in the 1950s.　　 汉语的文字系统——汉字，是世界上最古老的文字之一，也是世界三大古文字体系 （古埃及的象形文字、古巴比伦的楔形文字和中国的甲骨文）中惟一传承至今的文字。 汉字属于表意体系文字，但有趣的是大部分汉字又兼有表音功能。古代历史上，不仅中国使用汉字，在相当长的时期内，汉字还充当了东亚地区的国际交流文字，从而形成了以中国、日本、朝鲜半岛和越南等国家为主体的汉字文化圈。目前的汉字有简体和繁体之分，中国大陆主要使用简体字，繁体字主要用于台湾、香港、澳门，海外华人圈两种字体都有使用。 Written Chinese is one of the most ancient scripts in the world, and the only one of the three biggest script systems (the pictographs of ancient Egypt, the arrowheaded characters of the ancient Babylon, and the jiaguwen script of ancient China) that has come down to the present. Chinese characters belong to the system of ideograms, but interestingly, most Chinese characters concurrently indicate the pronunciation. In ancient times, Chinese characters were not only used in China, but also played a part in the international exchanges in East Asia, thus forming a cultural region based on Chinese characters, which mainly included China, Japan, the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam. Today, the Chinese characters can be classified into simplified Chinese and traditional Chinese. In general, the former is mainly used in the mainland of China, the latter mainly in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao; meanwhile, both are used among overseas Chinese.概述 Introduction The different fonts of Chinese character "dragon" 汉字“龙”的不同字体 篆书 隶书 楷书 草书 行书 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 133汉语 汉语是中国汉民族使用的语言，是中国的主要语言。 The Chinese language is the mother tongue of the Han people, and the official and major language of China. 汉语是世界上使用人数最多的一种语言， 除中国大陆、 台湾省和香港、澳门特区外，新加坡、马来西亚等国家也 有相当一部分人使用汉语，分布在世界各地的华侨华裔也多把汉语作为自己的母语。古代书面汉语称作“文言”，用文言写的文章叫 “文言文” ； 现代书面汉语称作 “白话” ①， 用白话写成的文章叫“白话文”。 The Chinese language has the most speakers in the world. In addition to the Chinese mainland, Taiwan Province, Hong Kong and Macao special administrative regions, some people in Singapore and Malaysia also use Chinese, and millions of overseas Chinese and foreign citizens of Chinese origin distributed around the world use various Chinese dialects as a native language, too. The Chinese language can be divided into ancient written language ( wenyan in Chinese) and vernacular Chinese ( baihua in Chinese) ①. Essays written in wenyan are called wenyan wen, and those in vernacular Chinese baihua wen . 汉语是联合国的工作语言之一。现代汉语的标准语是 “普通话”，在台湾省被称作“国语”，在新加坡和马来 西亚等地区被称作“华语”。 Chinese is one of the working languages of the United Nations. The standard language of Chinese is putonghua (Mandarin), which is called guoyu (national language) in Taiwan Province and huayu (Chinese language) in Singapore and Malaysia. 现代汉语的音节，一般由声母②、韵母③和声调④三个 部分组成，每个音节都由一个汉字来记录，如 rén（人）。 现代汉语的词汇发展，倾向于把一个音节扩展为两个音节The Chinese Language Jiaguwen The seal character Ancient prose sentence of The Analects of Confucius Half Classical Chinese and half vernacular sentences of A Dream of Red Mansions The language of modern poetry1. 甲骨文 2. 篆文3.《论语》中古文句子 4.《红楼梦》中半文半白句子 5. 现代诗句子1 2 3 4 5 学而时习之，不亦说乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？ 野草，根本不深，花叶不美，然而吸取露，吸取水，吸取陈死人的血和肉，各各夺取它的生存。 当生存时， 还是将遭践踏， 将遭删刈，直至于死亡而朽腐。 落霞与孤鹜齐飞，风急江天过雁哀，却是一只折足雁， 叫的人九回肠， 这是鸿雁来宾。 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 134（如：师——老师），把多个音节压缩成两个音节（如： 北京大学——北大）。 The syllables of modern Chinese language (vernacular Chinese) usually consist of the three parts of shengmu (initials)②, yunmu (finals) c and shengdiao (tones)④, with each syllable indicated by one Chinese character, for example, rén ( 人 ). In the development of vocabulary of the modern Chinese language, there is a trend to expand one syllable into two (for example, shi [ 师 ] —laoshi [ 老师 ]), and reduce multiple syllables into two ones (for example, Beijing Daxue [ 北京大学]—Beida [ 北大 ]). 从语法上来看， 首先， 汉语没有形态上的变化。 一个词， 无论作主语还是宾语，读音和书写形式不变。其次，词语 的顺序和虚词的使用是汉语表达语法意义的主要手段。比如“我要学”和“要我学”，虽然词语相同，但由于顺序不同， 前面的 “我” 是 “主语” ， 而后面的 “我” 作了 “兼语” ，也就是既是“要”的宾语，又是“学”的主语；再如“我被他叫醒了”和“我把他叫醒了”，一个用了介词“被”，一个用了介词“把”，两个句子的语法意义就完全不一样了。另外，十分丰富的语气词（如：“吗、吧、呗、嘛”）和量词（如：“一本书”的“本”、 “再说一遍”的“遍”）的存在，也是汉语语法的一大特点。 Grammatically, Chinese language features the following: First, it has no change of forms (for example, one character reads and writes the same way whether it is used as a subject or an object); second, the world order and the use of function words are the major means to express grammatical meanings — for example, " wo yao xue " ( 我要学 ) and " yao wo xue " ( 要我学 ) have the same characters or phrases, but due to their different orders, the " wo" in the first sentence is a "subject", and that in the second is a "jianyu " (concurrent sentence element), in other words, it is both the object of the word " yao" and the subject of " xue"; for another example, in the sentence that " wo bei ta jiao xing le " ( 我被他叫醒了 ) and the sentence that " wo ba ta jiao xing le " ( 我把他叫醒了 ), due to the use of prepositions " bei" ( 被 ) and " ba" ( 把 ), the grammatical meanings of the two sentences become totally different. Another important feature of Chinese language is the abundance of words showing mood or tones (for instance, ma [ 吗 ], ba [ 吧 ], bei [ 呗 ] and ma [ 嘛 ]) and those of words indicating the units of things (for instance, the word " ben" [ 本 ] in the expression " yi ben shu " [ 一本书 ] and the word " bian" [ 遍 ] in the expression " zai shuo yi bian " [ 再说一遍 ]).小注解·Footnotes ① 白话：是唐宋以来在口 语的基础上形成的，起初只用 于通俗文学作品，到了 1919 年五四运动以后才在社会上普遍应用。 ① Vernacular Chinese: Formed on the basis of colloquialism since the Tang and Song Dynasties. Appearing only in popular literature at first, it was not widely used in society until the May 4th Movement in 1919. ② 声母：是汉语音节中开 头的部分，大多是由辅音字母 构成的。 如音节 “ hàn”中 的“h”。 ②Shengmu : The initial part of a syllable in Chinese language, usually constituted by consonant letters, for example, the letter "h" in "h à n". ③ 韵母：是汉语音节中声 母后面的部分。如音节“ zhōnɡ ” 中的“onɡ”。 ③Yunmu : The part after shengmu in a syllable in Chinese language. For instance, the "ong" in the syllable "zh ō n ɡ". ④ 声调：是指音节中能够 区别意义的音高变化。汉语有 四个声调：阴平（一声）、阳平（二声）、上 （shǎnɡ） 声（三 声）、去声（四声）。汉语声调的高低变化，是通过由低到高的五个值来描写的，四个声调的调值及标号依次是： 55ˉ、 35 ˊ、 214ˇ、 51`， 声调的标号， 通常标记在主要元音的上面。 ④Shengdiao : The tonal change in a syllable that is used to distinguish meanings. Chinese language has four tones: yinping (the first tone), yangping (the second tone), shangsheng (the third tone) and qusheng (the fourth tone). The pitch change of tones in Chinese language can be described through five values from the low to the high, and the tonal values and marks of the four tones are 55ˉ, 35ˊ, 214ˇ and 51` in sequence. The tonal marks are usually above the major vocal letters. 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 135现代汉语是现代汉族的语言，它包括普通话和多种 方 言。 Modern Chinese language is the vernacular language of the modern Han people, including Putonghua and various dialects. 普通话是现代汉民族的共同语，也就是现代汉语的标 准语。它以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以 典范的现代白话文作为语法规范。 普通话为中国不同地区、不同民族之间的交际提供了方便。 Putonghua is the common language of the modern Han ethnic group, and the standard variety in modern Chinese language. It has Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect as its basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular Chinese as its grammatical standard. Standard Chinese offers convenience for communication between people at different areas or of different ethnic groups in China. 中国地域辽阔，人口众多，即使都使用汉语，各地区 说的话也不一样，这就是方言。方言俗称地方话，是汉语 在不同地域的分支，只通行于一定的地域。汉语目前有七大方言：北方方言、吴方言、湘方言、赣 （Gàn） 方言、客 家方言、闽（ Mǐn） 方言和粤 （Yuè） 方言。 China has a vast territory and a large population. Even though all use the Chinese language, people still speak in different dialects in different areas. Generally called local languages, dialects are branches of the Chinese language in different regions, and are only used in certain areas. At present, the Chinese language has seven types of dialects in general: northern dialects, Wu dialects, Xiang or Hunan dialects, Gan or Jiangxi dialects, Hakka, Min or Fujian dialects and Yue or Guangdong dialects. Standard Chinese and Dialects普通话和方言 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 为了促进全社会树立语言 文字规范意识，自 1998 年起， 中国政府将每年 9 月的第三周定为全国推广普通话宣传周。届时，社会各界纷纷组织一些相关活动， 如普通话知识讲座、向公众分发宣传资料等等。 In order to raise public awareness about the standardization of Chinese language and Chinese characters, the Chinese government has chosen the third week of September each year as the national promotion week to popularize the standard Chinese since 1998. On the occasion, all circles of the society organize related activities in succession, such as lectures on the knowledge of standard Chinese and distribution of promotion materials to the public. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 136北方方言以北京话为代表， 通行于中国的东北、 华北、 西北、西南、江淮地区，是分布地域最广、使用人口最多 的方言；吴方言以上海话为代表，通行于中国的江苏省、浙江省的部分地区；湘方言以长沙话为代表，通行于中国的湖南省大部分地区；赣方言以南昌话为代表，通行于中国的江西省和湖北省东南一带；客家方言以广东梅县话为代表， 主要通行于中国的广东省东北部、 福建省西部和北部、江西省南部；闽方言通行于中国的福建省、广东省潮汕地区、 海南省和台湾省 ； 粤方言俗称广东话， 以广州话为代表，通行于中国的广东省中部和西南部、广西壮族自治区东部和南部及港澳地区。其中，客家话、闽语和粤语还在世界各地的华人华侨中广泛使用。 Northern dialects have Beijing dialect as its representative, and are commonly used in northeastern China, northern China, northwestern China, southwestern China and areas along the Yangtze and Huaihe rivers. They are used most widely by the majority of speakers among all the dialects of China. Wu dialects, represented by Shanghai dialect, are commonly used in some areas in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces of China. Xiang or Hunan dialects, represented by Changsha dialect, are commonly used in most areas of Hunan Province. Gan or Jiangxi dialects, represented by Nanchang dialect, are generally used in Jiangxi Province and southeastern Hubei Province. Hakka dialects, represented by Meixian dialect of Guangdong Province, are mainly used in northeastern Guangdong Province, western and northern Fujian Province, and southern Jiangxi Province. Min or Fujian dialects are generally used in Fujian Province, Chaozhou and Shantou areas of Guangdong Province, Hainan Province and Taiwan Province. And Yue or Guangdong dialects, represented by Guangzhou dialect, are generally used in middle and southwest Guangdong Province, east and south Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hong Kong and Macao. In addition, Hakka, Fujian dialects and Guangdong dialects are also widely used by overseas Chinese all over the world.Schools generally used mandarin teaching in mainland China Are using mandarin broadcast XINWEN LIANBO of CCTV1. 中国学校采用普通话授课 2. 正在用普通话播送的新闻联播 1 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 137汉语方言十分复杂，各方言之 间的差别表现在语音、词汇、语法 三个方面，尤其是语音方面，如果人们都用方言，就会造成交际上的困难。为消除方言隔阂，顺应国内外交际往来的需要， 中国政府把 “推广普通话”确定为语言文字工作的重要任务之一。当前，中国以城市为中心，以学校为基础，以新闻媒体为榜样， 以公共服务行业为窗口，国家机关公务员带头，在全社会推 广普通话。国家语言文字工作委员会在国内外开展的普通话水平测试（PSC），就是推广普通话的一项重要措施。 Dialects of the Chinese language are very complicated. Various dialects differ from each other on three aspects: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Especially, the difference in pronunciation is the most dramatic, and if people all speak dialects, there will be difficulties in communication. In order to overcome difficulties brought about by dialects and meet the requirement both in domestic and international contact, the Chinese government determines "the popularization of standard Chinese" as one of the important tasks in the work on spoken and written Chinese language. Presently, China is popularizing Putonghua in the society as a whole. This work is centered on cities and towns, with schools as its bases, news media as models, public service industries as windows, and public servants as pioneers. The Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi (PSC for short, "Test for the Level of Standard Chinese" in English) that the State Language and Character Commission carries out both at home and abroad is just one of the important measures to spread standard Chinese.2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 138小注解·Footnotes ① 轻声：说话的时候，有 的音读得又短又轻，这就是“轻 声” 。 如语气词 “呢、 吧、 吗” 等。 ①Qingsheng (neutral tone): In speech, some pronunciations are shorter and gentler, and is called neutral tone, for example, the words indicating mood such as " ne" ( 呢 ), "ba" ( 吧 ) and " ma" ( 吗 ).《汉语拼音方案》 Scheme of Chinese Pinyin 《汉语拼音方案》是给汉字注音和拼写普通话语音的 方案，1958 年中国政府正式推行。 The Scheme of Chinese Pinyin is a system for marking Chinese characters with phonetic symbols and spelling the pronunciations of standard Chinese, and began to be formally carried out in 1958 by the Chinese government. 《汉语拼音方案》由五个部分组成： The Scheme of Chinese Pinyin consists of five parts: 1． 字母表：与英文字母表相同， 由 26 个拉丁字母组成。 但要注意的是，汉语拼音字母的发音和英文不一样，拼音 字母的发音， 《汉语拼音方案》都用“注音符号”标注了。另外，字母“V”不用于拼写普通话，在拼写少数民族语、方言等语言对象时使用。 1. Alphabet: Same as the English alphabet, it is also composed of 26 Latin letters. What requires attention is that the pronunciations of letters of pinyin in the Chinese language are different from those of English, and have all been marked with "phonetic symbols." Also, the letter "v" (with its capital form as "V") is not used in spelling standard Chinese, and is employed only in spelling the languages of ethnic minorities or dialects. 2．声母表：包括“b、p、m、f、d、t、n、 l、ɡ、k、h、j、q、x、zh、ch、sh、r、z、c、 s”21 个声母。 2. The table of shengmu (initials): Composed of 21 initials, which are b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, g, k, h, j, q, x, zh, ch, sh, r, z, c and s.声母表 Initials Table 拼音 字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标 b [b]ɡ [k]s [s] p [b’]k [k’]zh[tş] m [m]h [x]ch[tş’] f [f]j[tɕ]sh[ş] d [t]q[tɕ’]r[ʐ] t [t’] x[ɕ]y [j] n [n]z [ts]w [w] l [l]c [ts’] v [v] 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 1393 ．韵母表 ：由 “ɑ、o、e、i、u、ü、ɑi、ei、ɑo、 ou、iɑ、ie、uɑ、uo、üe、iɑo、iou、uɑi、uei、ɑn、 iɑn、uɑn、üɑn、en、in、uen、ün、ɑnɡ、iɑnɡ、uɑnɡ、enɡ、inɡ、uenɡ、onɡ、ionɡ” 35 个韵母组成。关于韵母 的拼读和拼写规则，《汉语拼音方案》的“韵母表”进行了展示和具体说明。 3. The table of yunmu (finals): Composed of 35 finals, which are a, o, e, i, u, ü, ai, ei, ao, ou, ia, ie, ua, uo, ü e, iao, iou, uai, uei, an, ian, uan, ü ɑ n, en, in, uen, ü n, ang, iang, uang, eng, ing, ueng, ong and iong. The table of finals illustrates and specifies the rules of pronunciation and spelling of the finals. 4． 声调符号：包括阴平 （ˉ） 、 阳平 （ˊ） 、 上（shǎnɡ ）声（ˇ）、去声（ˋ）四个声调。 声调符号标在音节的主要韵母音上，轻声① 不 标。 4. Tone marks: There are four tone marks, which are respectively yinping (ˉ), yangping (ˊ), sha ngsheng (ˇ) and qusheng (ˋ), and are marked on the major finals of the syllables; qingsheng (neutral tone) ① is not indicated with any accent mark. 5．隔音符号：ɑ、o、e 开头的音节连接 在其他音节后面的时候，如果音节的界限不清 楚， 用隔音符号 （'） 隔开， 例如 pí'ǎo （皮袄） 。 5. Delimiter: When a syllable initiated by "a", "o" and "e" comes after another syllable and the division of syllables are unclear, a separate sign ( ' ) is used, for example, pí' ǎo （皮袄）. 《汉语拼音方案》采用拉丁字母，不仅注 音准确，而且容易学，更便于国际间的文化 交 流。 The Scheme of Chinese Pinyin employs Latin letters, thus precisely marking pronunciation and making it easier for learners and more convenient for international cultural exchanges.韵母表 Final Table 注意事项： 1.汉语拼音有一些缩写形式， 在转换时应特别引起注意，应恢复成完整形式。如：ui 是 uei 的缩写，un 是 uen的缩写，ü 在 j、q、x 和 y 后写作 u。2. 儿化标记：r 写在音节末尾，调值之前。3.元音严式音标记忆方法（只换其中对应的拼音字母）。ɑ 的同一音位有5种：用[ a]：ɑi、ɑn、iɑ；用 [ Ą]： 跟在辅音后或者单独使用；用[ ɑ]：ɑnɡ、iɑnɡ、uɑnɡ、 ɑo、iɑo、uɑ；用 [ æ]：iɑn 及及 yɑn；用 [ ɐ]：儿化； o 的特殊标法：[ uŋ]：onɡ；[ yŋ]：ionɡ； e 的同一音位有4种：用[ ɣ]：跟在辅音后或者单独使用； 用[ e]：ei、ui；用 [ ɛ]：ie、üe；用 [ ə]：en、enɡ、 un、uenɡ、er；i 的同一音位有3种：用[ ɿ]：跟在 z、c、s 后；用 [ʅ]：跟在zh、ch、sh、ri后；用[ i]：跟在其它辅音后。单韵母（以下韵母为单用或只跟在辅音后） 拼音 字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标 ɑ[Ą] e[ɣ] u [u] o [o] i [i]ü [y] 复韵母 拼音字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标拼音字母国际音标 ɑi [ai]inɡ[iŋ] uɑi [uai] ei [ei]iɑ [ia]ui（uei） [uei] ɑo [au]iɑo [iau] uɑn [uan] ou [ou]iɑn [iæn] uɑnɡ [uaŋ] ɑn [an]iɑnɡ[iaŋ]un（uen） [uən] en[ən]ie[iε] uenɡ [uəŋ] in [in]ionɡ[yŋ] üe [yε] ɑnɡ[aŋ]iou [iou] üɑn [yæn] enɡ[əŋ]uɑ [ua] ün [yn] onɡ[uŋ]uo [uo] nɡ [ŋ] 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 140汉字的起源与形体演变 The Origin and Evolution of Chinese Characters 汉字也叫“中国字”，是世界 上最古老的文字之一。汉字数量极 其庞大，有 8 万多个。其中，常用字 3,500 个，这些常用字的社会信息覆盖率达 99%。 Chinese characters constitute one of mankind's oldest systems of scripts in the world. Large in number, Chinese characters total more than 80,000, among which basic ones amount up to 3,500 and convey 99% of social information. 汉字起源于原始社会的图画和 象形符号，这些图画和象形符号是 先民在长期的劳动实践中逐渐创造并不断总结出来的， 后来经过演变，最晚在距今 3,000 年的殷商时代出现了成熟的汉字——甲骨文。 Chinese characters originate from pictures and pictographic signs in primitive society, which were created and summarized step by step over a long period of labor and practice by the ancestors. Through evolvement, mature jiaguwen (oracle scripts, or Chinese scripts carved on tortoise shells or animal bones) appeared in the Shang Dynasty 3,000 years ago at the latest. “甲骨文”是殷商时代刻写在龟甲或兽骨上的文字。 这些文字多是用来占卜的。甲骨文笔画匀称、字形美观， 这说明它已是相当成熟的文字。此前应有更早期的文字雏形存在。 shiguwen rubbingsJiaguwenA diagram of evolution of Chinese scripts 3. 石鼓文拓片2. 甲骨文1. 汉字字体演变图 1 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 141Jiaguwen are Chinese scripts carved on tortoise shells or animal bones, mainly during the Shang Dynasty (17th -11th BC). Jiaguwen have regular strokes and beautiful form, which is evidence that they had undergone a long development process, and that there should be certain rudiments preexisting jiaguwen . 从甲骨文到现代的简化字，汉字经历了一个从形象到 抽象、从复杂到简单的演变过程，出现了甲骨文、金文、 篆书、隶书、楷书以及草书、行书等字体。 From jiaguwen to the current simplified Chinese characters, Chinese characters have experienced a course of evolution from hieroglyph to abstraction, and from complexity to simplicity, evolving from jiaguwen to jinwen (ancient Chinese script used in inscriptions on ancient bronze objects), zhuanshu (seal characters), lishu (official script), and kaishu (regular script) as well as caoshu (cursive script) and xingshu (semi -cursive script). “金文” 又叫钟鼎文， 是古代铸或刻在铜器上的文字。 外形比甲骨文丰满、 方正、 匀称， 存在于商、 周、 秦、 汉时期。 Jinwen , also known as " zhongdingwen ," are script forged or carved on bronze ware in ancient times, and their forms are fuller, rounder, more upright, more squared and better balanced in structure compared with jiaguwen . Jinwen existed in the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han dynasties. “ 篆（zhuàn ） 书” 分大篆、 小篆。 大篆又名 “籀 （ zhòu） 文”，一般指春秋战国时代的秦国文字，以“石鼓文”①为 代表；小篆是秦始皇统一六国后采用的标准字体，是在大 篆基础上整理、简化而成的，比大篆字形更匀称整齐，笔画更简化圆转。 Zhuanshu can be divided into dazhuan (large seal script) and xiaozhuan (small seal script). Dazhuan , also called zhouwen , usually refers to the script of the State of Qin during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the most typical dazhuan was shiguwen①; xiaozhuan was a result of simplified dazhuan , but was better balanced in structure, and more regular, with simplified, rounder and smoother strokes. “隶书” 分秦隶、 汉隶。 秦隶运用于秦代。 汉隶又叫 “今 隶” ， 从秦隶的基础上演变而来， 通行于汉代， 与秦隶相比，小注解·Footnotes ① 石鼓文：是刻在 10 块 鼓形石上的文字，是中国现存 最早的石刻文字。石鼓文极受历代学者的重视，10 块鼓形石现作为国宝，存放在北京故宫博物 院。 ①Shiguwen : A kind of script carved on ten pieces of drum-like stones. It is the extant earliest stone-carving script in China. Shiguwen has been highly thought of by generations of scholars, and the ten pieces of drum-like stones are now preserved as national treasures in the Imperial Palace Museum in Beijing. 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 142篆书的痕迹更少了。 Lishu can be divided into Qin li and Han li. Qin li was used in the Qin Dynasty. Han li, also known as "present li," was derived from Qin li, and was commonly used in the Han Dynasty. Compared with Qin li, Han li had fewer traces of zhuanshu . “楷书”从隶书发展而来，兴于汉末，盛于魏晋。由 于字形规矩方正、书写简便，一直沿用到今天，是通用时 间最长的标准字体。 Kaishu was developed on the basis of lishu, first appearing in the late Han Dynasty and most popular in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. Being regular and square in forms and simple in writing, it is still in use today. It is a standard script that has been used for the longest duration. 甲骨文、金文、篆书、隶书、楷书都是在一定历史阶 段正式运用的字体，而草书和行书一直是辅助性字体。草 书的总体特点是笔画的相连或省略多。 行书产生于东汉末，是一种介于楷书和草书之间的字体，虽然也连笔，但好写好认，非常实用。 Jiaguwen , jinwen , zhuanshu , lishu and kaishu were or are scripts formally used in certain periods of history, and caoshu and xingshu have been auxiliary ones all the time. Caoshu features in general continuous or omitted strokes. Xingshu originated in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, and is a kind of script between kaishu and caoshu . Despite its continuous strokes, it is easy to write and read, and thus very practical. 　小知识· Small Encyclopedia 甲骨文是 1899 年清代学者 王懿荣最先发现的，出土地点 在河南安阳，那里曾经是商代晚期的都城。在此之前，安阳小屯村农民经常发现刻着奇怪文字的龟甲和兽骨，他们不认识上面的字，就把这些甲骨当作药材卖到药店。王懿荣从买来的药中发现了这些甲骨，经研究，确定是商代的文字。到目前为止，从河南安阳出土有字甲骨十多万片，发现甲骨文单字约 4,100 个，大家公认能够释读的约 1,200 个，不能释读的字中，多是人名、氏族名和地名。甲骨文是中国最早、最成熟的文字，它为研究汉字起源提供了重要的实物资料。 Jiaguwen was discovered in 1899 by Wang Yirong, a scholar of the Qing Dynasty. The inscriptions were unearthed in Anyang of Henan Province, where the capital city of the late Shang Dynasty was located. Before the discovery, villagers of the Xiaotun Village in Anyang often found tortoise shells and animal bones carved with strange characters. They did not know what they were and thus sold them as medical materials to drugstores. Wang Yirong discovered these tortoise shells and animal bones among some Chinese medicine he had bought. After research he believed that the characters carved on tortoise shells and animal bones were the scripts of the Shang Dynasty indeed. So far, altogether more than 100,000 pieces of tortoise shells and animal bones have been excavated from Anyang, and about 4,100 Chinese characters have been discovered on tortoise shells and animal bones. Among these Chinese characters, 1,200 or so are recognized to be readable, and those that cannot be read are mostly the names of people, clans and places. Jiaguwen are the earliest and the most mature script of China, and they provide important materials for research into the origin of Chinese characters. 1 Wang Xianzhi's calli1. 王献之《中秋帖》 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 143Liushu (Six Categories of Chinese Characters) and Shuo Wen Jie Zi (The Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters )“六书”与《说文解字》 “六书”也就是六种造字方法， 即象形、指事、会意、形声、转注、 假借。东汉时期著名的文字学家许慎在《说文解字》中对“六书”进行了详细的阐释。 Liushu refers to the six ways to invent Chinese characters, which are xiangxing (pictography), zhishi (indication), huiyi (associative compounds), xingsheng (pictophonetic method), zhuanzhu (switching explanations) and jiajie (phonetical borrowing). Xu shen , an etymologist of the Eastern Han Dynasty, expounded liushu in The Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters . 象形：就是画出事物形状或简单轮廓的造字方法。象 形字多是描摹人体部位（如“人”“目”）、自然现象（如 “日” “月”）、动植物（如“鸟” “木”）和各类器物（如 “网”“刀”）的字。用象形方法创造的汉字，多是不可分割的独体字。 Pictography: The method of drawing the form or a simple outline of a thing. Most pictographic characters are those which describe the parts of the human body (for example, "人" [ren in pinyin , human being], " 目" [mu in pinyin , eye]), natural phenomena (for example, " 日" [ri in pinyin , the sun], " 月" [yue in pinyin , the moon]), animals and plants (for example, " 鸟" [niao in pinyin , bird], " 木" [mu in A photocopy of an ancient version of The Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters1.《说文解字》古代刻本书影 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 144pinyin , tree or wood], and various utensils (for example, " 网 " [ wang in pinyin , net], " 刀 " [ dao in pinyin , knife]. Pictographic characters are mostly indivisible single -structured ones. 指事：一般分为两类。一类是纯符号性的指事字，如 “一、二、三”等数目字。一类是在象形字的基础上，增 加表义符号的指事字，如“本、末”等。“木”是“树”的象形字 , 在“木”的下面加一横变成“本”，表示树根；在“木”的上面加一横变成“末”，表示树梢。指事字与象形字不同，象形字大都表现具体事物，指事字则表现抽象的概念。 Indication: Indicative characters can be divided into two types: one is indicative characters of pure marks, for example, characters expressing numbers such as " 一 " ( yi in pinyin , one), " 二 " ( er in pinyin , two) and " 三 " ( san in pinyin , three); and the other is those made up by adding indicative symbols on pictographs, for example, " 本 " ( ben in pinyin ) and " 末 " ( mo in pinyin ). " 木 " is a pictographic character meaning "tree". When a level stroke is added on the lower part of the character " 木 ", it becomes " 本 " and indicates the root of a tree; when a level stroke is added on the upper part of the character " 木 ", it turns into " 末 " and refers to the branch of a tree. Indicative characters are different from pictographic ones. Pictographs mostly show concrete things, but indicative characters indicate abstract concepts. 会意：就是把两个或两个以上的字组合成一个字，来 表达一个新意义。如汉字“休”，左边是象形字“人”， 右边是“树”的象形字“木”，两字合起来便产生了人靠在树旁边“休息”的新意义。 Associative compounds：These are new characters of new meanings formed by combining two or more existing ones. For instance, " 休 " ( xiu in pinyin ) is a compound of a pictograph " 人 " on the left and a pictograph " 木 " on the right, expressing the new meaning that a person leans against a tree to have a rest when the two are combined. 形声：就是把表示汉字意义的形旁与表示汉字读音的 声旁组合起来的造字法。如“湖”字，“氵”是形旁，表 字义， “胡” 是声旁， 表字音。 据统计， 在 1988 年公布的 《现代汉语通用字表》的 7,000 个汉字中，形声字约占 80.5%。A portrait of Xu Shen An illustration of pictographs, indicative characters, and associative compounds1. 许慎像 2. 象形字、指示字、会意字示意图 1 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 145Pictophonetic method： Used to form a new character by combining one element of a character to show the meaning and one element of another character to indicate the sound. For example, " 湖 " ( hu in pinyin , lake) has a " 氵 " (read as sandianshui [literally "three drops of water"]) as its pictographic part to suggest its meanings and a "胡 " ( hu in pinyin ) as its phonetic part to indicate the sound. According to statistics, among the 7,000 Chinese characters on the Table of Commonly Used Chinese Characters of Modern Chinese Language publicized in 1988, pictophonetic characters account for 80.5%. 转注：是在同一个部首内，两个意义相同的汉字可以 互相解释。如“舟”和“船”就是转注关系。 Switching explanations: This method is to use two Chinese characters with the radicals and the meaning to explain each other. For example, " 舟 " ( zhou in pinyin , boat or ship) and " 船 " ( chuan in pinyin ) have a relation of switching explanations between each other. 假借：是在没有产生新字的情况下，借用已有的同音 字，来表示某一个概念。如“来”，象形字，本义是小麦， 而来去的“来”就是假借。 Phonetical borrowing: This method is to borrow an existing homophone to express a certain meaning without inventing a new character. For example, " 来 " ( lai in pinyin ) is a pictograph and originally refers to "wheat;" when it is used to mean "to come," it is just a phonetical borrowing. 许慎的 《说文解字》 是中国语言史上第一部文字学专著， 也是中国第一部字典。全书概括了 540 个部首，收字 9,353 个。《说文解字》不仅开创了中国字典的先河，而且还保存了古文字的原貌，其作者被后世称为“文宗字祖”。 The Shuo Wen Jie Zi (The Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters ) by Xu Shen is the first etymological monograph in the history of languages of China, and also the first dictionary of China. The whole book collects 540 radicals and 9,353 Chinese characters. It is not only a pioneering dictionary of China, but has preserved the original appearance of ancient Chinese characters, hence it's author reputed to be the "forefather of Chinese characters" by later generations. 2象形字 指示字 会意字 木 朵 果 鸟 人 手 爪 又 日 林 采 奋柔 早 东森 集 集束 休 卓本 末 朱 枣 旦 刃 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 146繁体字与简化字 Original Complex Chinese Characters and Simplified Chinese Characters “简化字”是经简化并由中国政府正式公布使用的汉 字。一个字如果有两个或两个以上的形体，而这几个形体 的笔画数有多有少，那么笔画多的叫繁体字，笔画少的叫简体字。简体字的写法只能有一种，收入《汉字简化方案》（后发展成为《简化字总表》）中的简体字是现行简体字。 Simplified Chinese characters, adapted from complex ones with many strokes are those which have fewer strokes, and have been publicized for use by the Chinese government. The current standard simplified Chinese characters are collected into the Scheme of Simplification of Chinese Characters (later developing into the General Table of Simplified Chinese Characters ). 汉字从产生的那天起，就一直不停地发展演变。就笔 画多少来说，虽然有简化也有繁化，但简化是总趋势，尤 其是在小篆演变成隶书以后。 Chinese characters have been evolving since the earliest time of their occurrence. The amount of strokes of Chinese characters varies from time to time, but simplification is the general trend of development, especially after xiaozhuan evolved into lishu. 在历史的各个时期，民间都创造出了不少简体字，历 代王朝也不断地对汉字进行整理和规范。 秦始皇推行的 “书 同文”（即书写时采用同一种文字），就是中国历史上第一次大规模的汉字整理和规范。 此后， 汉晋直到明清、 民国，都出现过不少简体字。 Quite a few simplified Chinese characters were invented in different periods of history, and Chinese characters had been collated and regulated by the authorities of dynasties in succession. For example, shutongwen , which was introduced by Emperor Qinshihuang, was the first large -scale sorting and standardization of Chinese characters 1 语言文字篇 Spoken and Written Chinese Languages 147in the history of China. Later, there appeared many other simplified Chinese characters during from the Han and Jin Dynasties to the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China. 进入 20 世纪， 简化汉字工作受到了学者和政府的重视。 1909 年，清末教育家陆费逵（ Lùbì Kuí ）首先揭开了简化 字运动的序幕。1922 年，国学大师钱玄同等人提出的《减 省现行汉字的笔画案》 ， 把简体字提到了前所未有的高度。1935 年，南京国民政府公布了《第一批简体字表》，虽然半年之后就被暂缓推行，但毕竟是政府公布的法定字表，意义是十分重大的。新中国成立以后，为了普及教育，新中国政府统一对汉字进行了较大规模的简化，并于 1956 年公布了《汉字简化方案》。这个方案通过单字简化和偏旁类推等方法，使两千多个繁体字得到了简化。1986 年，国家语言文字工作委员会又发布了《简化字总表》，其中表一收了 352 个不作偏旁的简化字，表二收了 132 个可作偏旁的简化字和 14 个简化偏旁，表三收了 1,753 个利用表二类推出来的简化字。 In the 20th century, work on the simplification of Chinese characters received much attention from scholars and the government. In 1909, Lubi Kui, an educator of the late Qing Dynasty, started a prelude for the movement of simplification of Chinese characters. In 1922, Qian Xuantong and other scholars put forwards the Scheme for Simplifying the Strokes of Current Chinese Characters , elevating the issue of simplification of Chinese characters to an unprecedented level. In 1935, the National Government in Nanjing publicized the Table of The First Group of Simplified Chinese Characters ; although the program was suspended six months later, it is significant because it was a statutory table of simplified characters promulgated by the government. After the founding of New China in 1949, the Chinese government simplified Chinese characters in a unified and relatively large -scale way as part of efforts to make education universal, and published the Scheme of Simplification of Chinese Characters . By means of the simplification of single characters and the analogy of radicals, more than 2,000 original complex Chinese characters were successively replaced by simplified ones. In 1986, the State Language and Character Commission publicized the General Tables of Simplified Chinese Characters ; in particular, Table One includes 352 simplified characters not used as radicals, Table Two contains 132 simplified characters that can be used as radicals, and Table Three collects 1,753 simplified characters analogized on the basis of Table Two.The comparison of several basic original and simplified Chinese characters Lubi Kui Qian Xuantong1. 几个常见字的繁、简对照 2. 陆费逵 3. 钱玄同 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 148汉字简化具体方式主要有： Major methods to simplify Chinese characters are as follows: 1． 用简单的符号代替复杂的偏旁。如： 难—難、 学— 學 。 2．保留繁体字的一部分。如：开—開、医—醫。 3． 在不引起混淆的前提下， 用笔画简单的同音字代替。 如：后—後、丑—醜。 4． 借用笔画简单的古字。如：云—雲、从—從。5． 草书楷化。如：书—書、为—為。6． 改换形声字的声旁或形旁。如：拥－擁、护－護。 7． 用传统造字法造新字。如：形声字“响－響”； 会意字“尘－塵”。 8． 保留原字轮廓。比如：伞—傘、肃—肅。 1. Replace complicated basic components with simple symbols, such as 难—難 , and 学—學 . 2. Retain part of original complex Chinese characters, such as 开—開 , 习—習 , and 医—醫 . 3. Replace original complex Chinese characters with its homophone of simple strokes where it does not cause any confusion, such as 后—後 , and 丑—醜 . 4. Borrow ancient Chinese characters with fewer strokes, such as 云—雲 , 从—從 . 5. Transform caoshu (cursive script) into kaishu (regular script), such as 书—書 , 为—為 . 6. Replace the phonetic or pictographic element of pictophonetic characters, such as 拥—擁 , and 护—護 . 7. Form new characters by using traditional methods, such as pictophonetic ones 响—響 and associative compounds 尘—塵 . 8. Keep the outline of original characters, such as 伞—傘 and 肃— 肅. 如今，作为中国官方文字的汉字简化字已经得到了国 际社会的广泛承认， 成为联合国的工作文字之一。 而在台湾、 香港等地区以及一些海外华人报刊上主要使用繁体字。 Nowadays, the simplified Chinese characters as the official script of China have been widely recognized by the international community, and are one of the working scripts of the UN, while in Taiwan, Hong Kong and in the newspapers and journals of overseas Chinese, the major script in use is still original complex Chinese characters. 　 Ancient books written by Original Complex Chinese Characters Traditional Chinese is still widely used in Hong Kong and Taiwan1. 繁体字古籍 2. 繁体字在港台地区仍然广泛使用 1 2 文学篇 Literature 149 文学篇 Literature 《西游记》之大闹天宫 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 150中国古代文学历史悠久、绵长，它以瑰丽 而奇特的上古神话为开端， 接连出现了 《诗经》 、 楚辞、先秦散文、汉赋、汉乐府、魏晋诗文、南北朝民歌、唐诗、宋词、元曲和明清小说等一系列文学大观， 可谓此起彼伏、 璀璨 （cuǐcàn） 辉煌。中国古代文学以诗歌为主，喜欢宣传善良、忠义等道德观。情感的表达含蓄委婉，常以借景抒情等方式表现。 Ancient Chinese literature has a long history, which started with the splendid myths of remote antiquity, and later gave rise to such works as The Book of Songs , Chu Ci poems, prose of the pre - Qin period, descriptive prose interspersed with verse and Yuefu of the Han Dynasty, prose and verse of the Wei and Jin dynasties, folk songs of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, poems of the Tang Dynasty, Ci poems of the Song Dynasty, Zaju (poetic drama set to music) of the Yuan Dynasty, and fiction of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Ancient Chinese literature mainly takes the form of verse, focusing on the promotion of morality of good, loyalty and righteousness. It is implicit and periphrastic in the expression of sentiments, often taking advantage of a scene to express the author's emotion. 进入 20 世纪，中国文学发生了巨大变革，悠久的古典 文学转变为崭新的现代文学。一百年间，文学家们不断创 造出与时代风貌相契 （qì） 合的文学奇观，并推动中国文 学融入世界文学。 Chinese literature changed enormously in the 20th century, and centuries -old classic literature took on a brand new modern form. In the last century, litterateurs continually created literary miracles by combining the ethos of the times and pushing the literature of China to fuse with that of the world.概述 Introduction A picture about the Book of Songs with words written by the emperor personally 1.《御笔诗经图》（局部） 1 文学篇 Literature 151远古神话 Myths of Remote Antiquity 中国远古神话， 大多是原始社会劳动人民的集体创作。 它们经历了口头流传的漫长岁月，直到文字发明以后，才 被记载下来。 Chinese myths of remote antiquity were mostly created collectively by the laboring people of primitive societies, circulated and handed down orally until written script was invented to allow for a more permanent record. 中国远古神话，内容丰富，想象奇特，反映了中国先 民对一些自然现象和社会习俗的认识和理解，也表达了他 们的一些愿望和感受。 像解释世界起源的 《盘古开天》 和 《女娲补天》、反映人类与大自然作斗争的《后羿射日》和《精卫填海》、歌颂献身精神的《鲧（ Gǔn）禹治水》、渴望幸 福美好生活的《嫦娥奔月》等，都深受人们喜爱。 Drawing on the powerful imagination of their creators, these myths, with their abundance of contents, reflect the understanding of Chinese ancestors about some natural phenomena and social customs. For example, enduring favorites include the Pangu Separates the Sky from the Earth and the N ü wa Mends the Sky explaining the origin of the world, the Houyi Shoot the Sun and the Jing Wei Determines to Fill Up the Sea reflecting man's struggle against the nature, the Gun and Yu Harness Floods singing for the spirit of self -sacrifice, and the Chang E Flying to the Moon expressing the wish for good life. 《女娲补天》讲的是：在远古时 候， 天地塌陷， 大火蔓延， 洪水泛滥， 猛兽吃人，女娲为了拯救人类，炼五色石修补了天。这个流传了几千年的神话故事，表现出女性在远古社会生活中的重要地位和伟大贡献。A photo of the Classic of the Mountains and Seas1.《山海经》书影 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 152 N ü wa Mends the Sky : In time immemorial, the sky collapsed, the earth sank, wildfire spread, floods ravaged the land, and beasts ran amok. In order to rescue the human race, N ü wa emerged to mend the sky with five-color rocks that she had previously tempered. This myth, which has been told for thousands of years, indicates the important position and great contributions of women in social life since remote antiquity. 《鲧禹治水》描写的是：在远古的时候，大地被洪水 淹没了，鲧为了堵住洪水，偷了天帝的“息壤”（传说是 一种能够自己生长的土壤），天帝非常生气，处死了他。鲧死不瞑目，3 年后，禹从他的肚子里跳了出来，继承了他的事业。经过 8 年的努力，终于疏通了河道，使洪水流进大海。 Gun and Yu Harness Floods : Long, long ago, the land was flooded. In order to block the floods, Gun stole the Heavenly Emperor's treasure, xirang (a kind of earth that could grow by itself), and was thus put to death. Gun refused to give up, even after his death. Three years later, Yu leapt out of Gun's belly, carrying on the latter's work. After eight years of effort, Yu finally harnessed the rivers and channeled floods into the sea. 大约在战国初年到汉代初年出现的《山海经》，是中 国古代保存神话资料最多的著作。 另外， 西汉时期创作的 《淮 南子》 中也记录了大量神话片段， 《女娲补天》 《共工触山》《后羿射日》和《嫦娥奔月》就保留在其中。 The Shan Hai Jing (Classic of the Mountains and Seas ), appearing during the period from the early Warring States to the early Han Dynasty, is a book that has collected the largest number of ancient Chinese myths. In addition, the Huainanzi , written in the early Western Han Dynasty, has also recorded many mythic tales; for example, N ü wa Mends the Sky, Gonggong Hit the Mountain, Houyi Shoot the Sun and Chang E Flying to the Moon all appear in this book. 中国上古神话在民间流传很广，给人以鼓舞、启发和 艺术享受，为后世文学创作提供了丰富的素材。许多著名 作家如屈原、蒲松龄等人的作品，都体现了神话原型的精髓和力量。 Chinese myth of remote antiquity was widely circulated in the folk society, serving to encourage, inspire, offer artistic enjoyment, and provide abundant material for subsequent literary creation. The works of many famous litterateurs, such as Qu Yuan and Pu Songling, have shown the quintessence and strength of mythic prototypes. A sculpture about Nüw a mends the sky1. 女娲补天雕塑1 文学篇 Literature 153The Book of Songs《诗经》 《诗经》原名《诗》，是中国第一部诗歌总 集。它收录了从西周初年到春秋中叶大约 500 年间 的 305 篇诗歌。相传孔子曾对它做过整理，并作为教材向弟子讲授，所以从汉代起，儒家便把《诗》尊称为《诗经》。 The Book of Songs , originally called Poems , is the earliest collection of poems in China. It contains 305 poems created over a period of some 500 years from the early Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century -771 BC) to the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period (770 -476 BC). It was said that Confucius once collated and used it as a textbook for teaching his disciples. Since the Han Dynasty, then, Confucians have acclaimed it as scripture. 《诗经》 中的诗歌， 原本都是可以配乐的歌词， 分为 “风、 雅、颂”三类。“风”是来自当时周王朝诸侯国的民歌， 又叫作“国风”；“雅”是西周王朝直接统治地区的乐歌，内容多是表现宫廷贵族生活的； “颂”是用于祭祀的乐歌。其中“国风”的思想性和艺术价值最高。 The poems in The Book of Songs were originally lyrics that could be matched with music, and were divided into the three types of "feng," "ya" and " song." "Feng " were folk songs from the vassal states under the Zhou Dynasty, " ya" were lyrics from areas directly under the reign of the Zhou Dynasty, mainly reflecting the royal life of the dynasty, and " song" were lyrics used in worship. In particular, " feng" are superior to the other two both in moral and artistic value. 《诗经》 每句四字， 语言清丽， 音韵和谐， 风格朴素 。 如： 关关雎鸠（jūjiū） ， 在河之洲。 The Book of Songs1.《诗经》 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 154窈窕（yǎotiǎo ）淑女， 君子好（hǎo）逑（qiú）①。 Poems in The Book of Songs are made up of four -character verses. The language used is in the form of concise and refreshing rhymes. They are simple in style. For instance: Guan! Guan! Cry the fish hawksOn sandbars in the river:A mild -mannered good girl, Fine match ① for the gentleman. 这是《诗经》第一篇《国风·周南·关雎》中的诗句。 诗歌以一个年轻男子的口吻，借用两只雎鸠鸟亲昵相伴的 景象，表达了自己对一位品德贤淑的女子的热恋和追求。 This poem entitled Crying Fish Hawks tells of a young man who, by describing the intimate company of two birds, passionately expresses his love and pursuit of a pretty and simple girl. 《诗经》 中很多作品都真实地描写了当时的社会风貌， 其中有表现劳动与爱情的，有表现战争与徭役（ yáoyì ）的， 有表现压迫与反抗的，有表现风俗与婚姻的，等等。如同 一轴巨幅画卷， 真实、 形象地再现了当时社会的政治、 经济、军事、文化以及世态人情和民风习俗。 Many poems in The Book of Songs truthfully mirror the life and society of their time. Some of them are about labor and love, others are about wars and corvee labor, oppression and revolt, customs and marriage, and so forth. They are like a scroll of large -sized paintings, truthfully and vividly reproducing the politics, economy, military affairs, culture, social conditions, human relations and folk customs unique to that time. 《诗经》关注现实的创作风格，使它成为中国古典文 学现实主义传统的光辉起点，在中国文学史上具有崇高的 地位和深远的影响。 Owing to its realistic style, The Book of Songs represents a splendid starting point for the realist tradition of classical literature of China, and holds a highly esteemed position and has a profound influence on the history of Chinese literature. 　 A painting inspired by The Book of Songs1.《鹿鸣之什图》展示《诗经》 的意境 小注解·Footnotes ① 关关：象声词，鸟的鸣 叫声；雎鸠：一种水鸟；洲： 水中的陆地；窈窕：形容女子文静而美好；淑女：指温柔善良的女子；逑：配偶。全句意思是：雎鸠鸟在水中的陆地上欢快地叫着，品德贤淑的女子是好男人理想的配偶。1 文学篇 Literature 155楚辞 Chu Ci “楚辞”是在《诗经》之后出现的一种新诗体，公元 前 4 世纪产生于中国南方的楚国。 “楚辞” 的句子有长有短， 而且广泛使用 “兮 （xī） ” ①字， 增强了句子的节奏感。 “楚辞” 在形成过程中， 受到楚地民歌、 音乐以及当地风俗的影响，充满了浪漫的色彩， 从而开启了中国浪漫主义文学的源头。 　Chu Ci was a new style of poetry to emerge after The Book of Songs . It originated in the State of Chu in southern China in the 4th century BC. The lines of Chu Ci vary in length, and make use of the word " xi" ( 兮 ) ① to intensify the sensation of rhythm. In the course of the formation of this genre, it was influenced by folk songs, music and the folk literature of the State of Chu, and was fully imbued with the color of romanticism. It is the origin of China's romantic literature. “楚辞”的代表作家屈原，是中国历史上最受尊敬的 伟大诗人之一，每年端午节，中国人包粽子、赛龙舟等民 俗活动，都是为了纪念他。20 世纪 50 年代，屈原被推举为世界文化名人，受到了全世界人民的敬仰。他的作品主要有《离骚》《天问》《九歌》等。 The best representative poet of Chu Ci was Qu Yuan, who is one of the greatest poets held in the highest esteem in China. On the Dragon Boat Festival every year, Chinese people hold dragon boat races to commemorate him. In the 1950s, Qu Yuan was recommended and recognized as an outstanding cultural figure in the world for all people to respect. His main works include Sorrow After Departure (Li Sao), Asking Heaven (Tian Wen ), Nine Songs (Jiu Ge ), etc. 《离骚》是一篇宏伟壮丽的政治抒怀诗。全诗 370 多 句，2,400 多字。《离骚》带有很强的自传性，诗人在诗中 用血和泪的文字，讲述了自己的身世、品德、追求和遭遇，A portrait of Qu Yuan1. 屈原像 1 小注解 · Footnotes ①兮是一个助词，跟现代 汉语的“啊”相似。 ① Xi ( 兮 ) is an auxiliary word for expressing mood, similar to the word "ah" ( 啊 ) in modern Chinese language. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 156表达了他对楚国命运的关心和坚持理想的决心。在诗中， 他驾起玉龙、乘上彩车，在月神、风神和太阳神的护卫下，神游天上、追求理想，最后不得不离开他深爱的楚国。 Sorrow After Departure (Li Sao ) is a colossal political lyric made up of over 370 lines with 2,400 characters. With deep grief, the poet recounts his life, his beliefs and misfortunes, expresses his concern over the fate of the State of Chu and his determination to maintain his lofty aspirations. In this poem, he rode on a jade dragon and a colorful chariot, traveled to Heaven in search of his ideals under the protection of the God of the Moon, the God of Wind and the God of the Sun, and was finally forced to leave his most beloved State of Chu. 屈原强烈的社会责任感，以及追求理想的执著精神， 感动并激励了一代又一代文人志士。《离骚》不仅是屈原 的代表作，也是“楚辞”的代表作品，因而“楚辞”这种诗体也常被称作“骚体”。 Qu Yuan's patriotism and unyielding spirit has encouraged literature lovers and honest patriots down through the generations. The Sorrow After Departure (Li Sao ) is not only the representative work of Qu Yuan, but of Chu Ci . Therefore, the genre of Chu Ci is often called " saoti" (the style of Li Sao ). “楚辞”在艺术上达到了一个新的境界，并且影响了 历代散文和诗歌的创作，对中国文学产生了极其深远而广 泛的影响。 Chu Ci took its art to a higher level, and influenced the creation of prose and verse throughout generations. It is profoundly influential to Chinese literature. The Picture of Lord of Xiang — a painting themed with Qu Yuan's poem Jiu Ge (Nine Songs )1.《九歌》：湘夫人图 1 文学篇 Literature 157先秦散文 Pre-Qin Prose 先秦散文是中国散文的起点，主要分为两 类：叙事散文和说理散文。 Pre-Qin prose was the starting point of prose literature in China. It can be divided into two types: narrative prose and argumentative prose. 叙事散文以《左传》和《战国策》成就最 高。《左传》相传是春秋末期鲁国史官左丘明 编写的。《左传》擅长战争描写，它不仅把复杂的战争有条理地叙述出来，并且从大处着眼，通过人物对话，写出了战争的性质、决定胜败 的因素等内容。《战国策》是由西汉末年的刘向编撰的，主要记述了战国时期政治外交家们的政治主张和策略，展示了战国时代的历史特点和社会风貌。《战国策》常用寓言说明道理，像“画蛇添足”“亡羊补牢”“狐假虎威”等寓言都出自其中。 Among the achievements of narrative prose, Zuozhuan (The Annals of Spring and Autumn with Comments by Zuo Qiuming) and Zhanguoce (Strategies of the Warring States ) stand above all the others. Zuozhuan is said to be compiled and written by Zuo Qiuming, a historiographical official of the State of Lu in the late Spring and Autumn Period. This book adeptly describes warfare. It not only depicts complicated wars systematically and clearly, but grasps important points to describe the nature of a war and the decisive points for victories and defeats by means of dialogues between historical figures. The Strategies of the Warring States was compiled and written by Liu Xiang of the late Western Han Dynasty. It mainly relates the political claims and strategies of statesmen and diplomats of the Warring States Period, displaying the historical characteristics and social appearances of that time. The Strategies of the Warring States employs many fables to The cover and text of the Zuozhuan in an ancient version1.《左传》古本 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 158explain arguments; the famous of which include "adding legs to one's sketch of a serpent," "mending the fold after a sheep is lost" and "the fox assuming the majesty of the tiger." 说理散文是战国时期各个学派论说自己的政治主张、 哲学观点和思想倾向的说理性著作。 主要的论著有 《论语》 《老子》《孟子》《庄子》《韩非子》等。 Argumentative prose consists of argumentative writings of all schools of thoughts of the Warring States when they argued for their own political propositions, philosophical views and thoughts. They mainly include the Analects of Confucius , the Tao Te Ching (Lao Tze ), the Writings of Mencius , the Writings of Zhuangzi , and the Writings of Han Fei . 《论语》 是儒家经典， 由孔子的弟子及再传弟子编写， 记录了孔子及其弟子的言行， 集中体现了孔子的政治主张、 伦理思想、道德观念和教育原则。 《论语》语言简洁精炼，含义深刻， 其中许多词句， 如 “ 三人行，必有我师焉 ” ①“因 材施教 ”②等，至今仍被人们广泛引用。 The Analects of Confucius is a Confucian classic, compiled and written by Confucius' disciples and the disciples of those disciples. It records the words and conduct of Confucius and his pupils, and is an intensive reflection of Confucius' propositions about politics, thought on ethics, views about morality, and principles of education. The Analects is concise in language and profound in meaning; its many sentences and expressions are still widely cited today, including "If three of us are walking together, at least one of the other two is good enough to be my teacher" and "teach students in accordance with their aptitude." 道家经典《庄子》的论说，大量运用寓言和幻想，给 人一种浪漫和诗情画意的美感。 Meanwhile, the Writings of Zhuangzi , a classic of Taoism, employs an array of fables and imagination, impressing readers with the aesthetic feeling of romance and poetry. 先秦散文丰富多彩的创作风格和语言艺术，都为后世 文学创作提供了借鉴。 The writing style and language art of pre -Qin prose have been followed in the literary creation of later generations.小注解 · Footnotes ① 三人行，必有我师焉： 几个人同行，其中一定有我的 老师。意思是人们应虚心向有长处的人学习。 ② 因材施教：指针对学习 者的兴趣、能力等具体情况，进行不同的教育。 A portrait of Confucius An illustration to the Writings of Zhuangzi1. 孔子像 2.《庄周梦蝶》 1 2 文学篇 Literature 159“乐府”最初是汉朝设立的音乐机构，它的职责是采 集各地民间诗歌和乐曲。后来人们把这类诗歌和文人模拟 的作品也叫作“乐府”。 Yuefu originally referred to the musical bureau in the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) in charge of the collection of folk ballads and poems created by folk literati, which would then be set to music. Later, poems and folk ballads collected and compiled by the Yuefu were given this generic name. 汉乐府是继《诗经》之后古代民歌的又一次大汇集。 作者来自社会不同阶层，内容反映了社会的方方面面。汉 乐府中的精华是乐府民歌， 这些民歌语言朴素， 人物生动，感情真挚，如民歌《江南》： 江南可采莲，莲叶何田田。鱼戏莲叶间。鱼戏莲叶东，鱼戏莲叶西，鱼戏莲叶南，鱼戏莲叶北。 The Yuefu Songs of the Han Dynasty is another great collection of folk songs from ancient China after The Book of Songs . Their authors came from different walks of life, with their contents reflecting all aspects of the society. In particular, folk songs occupy the pinnacle of the Yuefu songs of the Han Dynasty. These folk songs feature simple language, vivid personae and true feelings. For example, the lyrics from the folk song entitled Jiangnan (South of the Yangtze ) include: Time to gather lotus in the Yangtze Valley,As lotus leaves are fair and lusty.Fish frolic amidst the lotus leaves.Fish frolic to the east of the lotus leaves,Fish frolic to the west of the lotus leaves,Fish frolic to the south of the lotus leaves,Fish frolic to the north of the lotus leaves.Yuefu Songs of the Han Dynasty汉乐府 1A painting of the scene of gathering lotus1. 采莲图 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 160这首诗歌的大意是：江南大湖里的莲蓬到了可以采摘 的季节，湖里长满了莲花，小鱼儿在莲叶间游来游去。 The main idea of this poem is: In regions south of the Yangtze River, the time has come to pick lotus seedpods. The lakes there are dotted with lotus flowers and fish swim merrily under the lotus leaves. 诗歌生动表现了江南百姓采莲的情景和劳动时的愉快 心情。 This folk song depicts the joyous mood of local people gathering lotus. 汉乐府民歌大多是一些讲述故事的叙事诗。《孔雀东 南飞》是汉乐府中最有名的叙事诗篇，也是中国汉族文学 史上第一部长篇叙事诗。它生动地讲述了一个封建家庭的爱情悲剧：聪明、美丽、善良的刘兰芝和焦仲卿结婚以后，互敬互爱，感情深厚，但是焦仲卿的母亲却狠心地拆散了他们。两人自杀以后，变成了一对永不分离的鸳鸯，“ 仰 头相向鸣，夜夜达五更 ”。这首长诗，通过刘兰芝、焦仲 卿的爱情悲剧，控诉了封建礼教、家长统治的罪恶，表达 了青年男女追求婚姻自由的愿望。 Most of the Yuefu songs of the Han Dynasty are narrative poems, and the best known is The Bride of Jiao Zhongqing (Kong Que Dong Nan Fei ), which is also the earliest long narrative poem in Chinese history. It gives a vivid account of a tragedy of two lovers in a feudal family. Liu Lanzhi, a smart, pretty and kind -hearted girl, and her husband Jiao Zhongqing, loved each other deeply, but Jiao's mother cruelly forced them to separate. As a result, both Jiao and Liu committed suicide and transformed into a pair of lovebirds. This poem condemned the feudal ethics and evil clan rule, and expressed the wishes of the young for free marriage. 汉乐府真实反映社会现实的精神和伟大的艺术成就， 对后世诗歌产生了巨大影响。另外，汉乐府诗句在字数使 用上更加自由，突破了《诗经》四字一句的格式，实现了向五字一句和句子长短不一的杂言诗体的过渡，这对中国古代诗歌的发展起到了积极的推动作用。 The pursuit of faithful reflection of social reality by Yuefu songs of the Han Dynasty and the artistic merits they achieved had a great impact on the development of poetry in later generations. Furthermore, the Yuefu songs broke through the limitation of four -character style of The Book of Songs , and were a transition towards the style of five characters in one line or that of varying the length of lines. Therefore, they played a positive role in impelling the development of the poems and songs of ancient China. An illustration to The Bride of Jiao Zhongqing1.《孔雀东南飞》图1 文学篇 Literature 161南北朝民歌 Folk Songs of the Southern and Northern Dynasties 从公元 420 年到 589 年，中国处于南北对峙、各建政 权的时代，历史上叫作“南北朝”。南北朝和汉代一样， 设有乐府机构。这些机构采集、编制的民歌，代表了这一时期突出的文学成就。 The period from 420 AD to 589 AD was a time of confrontation between north and south, and is historically known as the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Same as in the Han Dynasty, there were also Yuefu institutions during the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The folk songs collected and compiled by these institutions represented the outstanding literary achievements of this period. 由于南朝和北朝的政治、经济、文化以及 自然环境等方面有很大的差异，南朝民歌与北 朝民歌也呈现出不同的情调与风格。 Because of the disparity between the Southern and the Northern in politics, economy, culture and the natural environment, folk songs from both sides also reflected different sentiments and styles 南朝民歌多是些情歌，而且大多是以女子 的口吻唱出的。保留到今天的南朝民歌大约有 500 首。抒情长诗《西洲曲》是南朝民歌中的代表作品，描写的是一个女子对情人的思念。诗中运用了大量诗句来描写不同季节的景物变化以及女主人公的活动，将那种无尽的相思，表现得细腻缠绵而又委婉含蓄。 The majority of songs of the Southern Dynasties are love songs, most of which were composed in a woman's tone. About five hundred folk songs of the Southern A traditional Chinese painting about picking lotus seedpods of the Ode to Xizhou1.《西洲曲》采莲图 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 162Dynasties survive until today, with the Ode to Xizhou as a fine representative. This poem describes a young woman who missed her man. The poem expresses the woman's endless yearning in a delicate and implicit way, depicting the changing scenes in different seasons and the activities of the female persona. 北朝民歌语言朴素， 风格豪放。长篇叙事诗 《木 兰诗》，代表了北朝 民歌的最高成就。《木兰诗》讲的是：花木兰女扮男装， 代替父亲从军打 仗， 在征战的 10 年当中，立下汗马功劳。胜利回来以后，她谢绝做官，返回了家园。全诗生动活泼、 清新刚健，歌颂了花木兰这位奇女子善良孝顺的品质和保家卫国的英雄气概。这在重男轻女的封建社会具有特殊的意义。这首诗深受中国人民的喜爱。木兰从军的故事也被多次搬上银幕和舞台。 Folk songs of the Northern Dynasty are simple and plain in language and vigorous in style. In particular, the long narrative poem Mulan Ci represents the highest achievements of the folk songs of the Northern Dynasties. This poem tells a story of the heroine Mulan, who, disguised as a man, joins the army on behalf of her father, declines an offer from the emperor and returns home after winning great merit on the battlefield. The whole poem is vivid, lively, fresh and vigorous, praising the positive characteristics of this admirable woman such as kindness and filial piety as well as heroic patriotism. In a feudal society in which women were regarded as inferior to men, this poem had special significance. It has maintained its great popularity and has been adapted for both the film screen and stage play. An illustration of Mulan going to war1. 花木兰从军图 1 文学篇 Literature 163中国古典诗歌发展到唐代， 进入了高度繁荣的阶段。就数量 而言，被收录在清代编定的《全唐诗》中的诗人有 2,300 多位，作品近 5 万首，可谓盛况空前。唐诗体例丰富，风格多样，诗人队伍几乎涵盖了社会的各个阶层。唐代诗歌之所以能够如此发达，除了诗歌自身发展的因素外，与高度发展的社会综合实力也是分 不开的。另外，唐代文人为了做官而参加的考试也要加试诗歌，这也在一定程度上激发了文人的创作热情。 The Tang Dynasty witnessed the zenith of ancient Chinese poetry. The Complete Collection of Poems of the Tang Dynasty , a book compiled in the Qing Dynasty, collects works from more than 2,300 poets numbering nearly 50,000 poems. Poems of the Tang Dynasty vary in style, with poets coming from almost all levels of the society. The wealth of Tang Dynasty poetry was both a result of the development of poetry itself, and of the highly developed comprehensive strength of the society. Moreover, literati of the Tang Dynasty had to write poems as an additional test when they took part in imperial civil examinations. This can be credited for inspiring the enthusiasm among literati for writing poems. 在唐代众多的诗人当中， 影响最大的三位诗人是李白、 杜甫和白居易。 Among the many poets of the Tang Dynasty, three of the most influential ones are Li Bai (701 -762 AD), Du Fu (712 -770 AD) and Bai Juyi (772 -846 AD).唐诗 Poetry of the Tang Dynasty A portrait of Du FuA portrait of Li Bai 2. 杜甫像1. 李白像 2 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 164小注解·Footnotes ① 出自《行路难》，充分 表达了诗人不畏艰难、勇往直 前的壮志豪情。 ① The poem "Strenuous Journey ", fully expresses the poet's defiance of difficulties and his courage to go on. ② 出自《将进酒》，充分 展示出诗人狂放自信的人格风采。 ② The Invitation to Wine vividly reveals the unrestrained self- confidence of the poet. ③ 比翼鸟：传说中只有一 只眼睛，一个翅膀，雌雄必须并翼才能同飞的鸟；连理枝：树干合生一起的两棵树。二者都用来比喻恩爱的夫妻。诗句表达出希望恩爱夫妻永远相伴的美好愿望。 ③ These two lines express the good wish of lovers to accompany each other forever.李白是一位热情奔放、 才华横溢的诗人， 被人们称为 “诗 仙”。他的诗想象瑰奇，具有强烈的个人抒情性。如 “长 风破浪会有时，直挂云帆济沧海”①“天生我材必有用，千 金散尽还复来”②，以排山倒海的气势展现了诗人对实现伟 大理想的坚定信念。李白的诗保存下来的有 990 多首，有 热情歌颂祖国壮丽山河的，有表达政治理想的，有抒发友情的，等等。其中《静夜思》《望庐山瀑布》等经典诗歌，被人们世代传诵。 Li Bai was unconstrained and most talented, and has been praised as the "Deity of Poetry." With lofty sentiments and a powerful imagination, he created many poems to express his own feelings, a few lines of which include, "Certainly the time will come to Head to the sea in full sail, and brave the wind and the waves!" ① and "Heaven has made us talents，we're not made in vain; a thousand gold coins spent, more will turn up again," ② revealing overwhelming vigor and showing the poet's confidence to fulfill his great ideal. More than 900 poems of Li Bai have been preserved, some of which are ode to the magnificent mountains and mighty rivers of his motherland, and some showcase his political ideal, and others are odes to friendship. In particular, classic poems such as Thoughts in the Silent Night and Watching the Waterfall at Lushan have been cited for generation after generation. 杜甫是唐代伟大的现实主义诗人，被后人尊称为“诗 圣”。他生活在唐代社会从繁盛到衰败的过渡时期，一生 游历了许多地方，接触到了社会的各个阶层。杜甫的诗像一面镜子，形象真实地反映了当时社会的动荡变化和下层人民生活的疾苦，他的诗也由此被称为“诗史”。杜甫的诗保留到今天的有 1,400 多首，许多成为历代传诵的名篇，像《春夜喜雨》《春望》等等。 Du Fu was a great realistic poet of the Tang Dynasty, and has been called the "Poetry Sage" by later generations. Living in the transitional period of the Tang Dynasty from prosperity to its decline, Du Fu visited many places and interacted with all levels of the society. Du Fu's poems are like a mirror, vividly and truthfully reflecting the turbulence and changes of the society at that time and the sufferings of lower -class people; therefore, his poems are also called "poems of history." About 1,400 of Du Fu's poems are preserved till now, and those which have been recited through generations include Good Rain on a Spring Night and Looking out on Spring .A portrait of Bai Juyi A photo of the Three Hundred Tang Poem An illustration to the Everlasting Regret by Bai Juyi1. 白居易像 2.《唐诗三百首》书影 3. 白居易《长恨歌》诗意图　 文学篇 Literature 165白居易的诗题材多 样，语言通俗，多是用讲 故事的方式来说明道理。《长恨歌》是白居易的代表作之一，诗歌以唐玄宗与杨贵妃的爱情悲剧为题材，描写形象细腻，非常有感染力。诗中的 “在天 愿作比翼鸟，在地愿为连理枝” ③等许多诗句，都 是人们反复吟诵的名句。 Bai Juyi's poems have a variety of themes that use simple and plain words, mostly explaining certain points through storytelling. The Everlasting Regret , one of Bai's representative poems, describes the love tragedy of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty and Lady Yang. The poem is vivid, exquisite, and very moving. Many lines of this poem, including, "On high, we'd be two birds flying wing to wing; On earth, two trees with branches twined from spring to spring," ③ have become famous ones often recited by people. 另外，深受人们喜爱的唐代诗人还有王维、王之涣、 李商隐等。唐诗的普及读本《唐诗三百首》，几乎成了中 国家庭的必选读物。唐代诗歌不仅达到了中国诗歌史的顶峰，也是世界诗歌宝库中的奇珍异宝。 In addition, other favorite poets of the Tang Dynasty include Wang Wei, Wang Zhihuan and Li Shangyin. The Three Hundred Tang Poems —a collection of the best poetic literature of the Tang Dynasty, is considered a must read for Chinese families. The poems of the Tang Dynasty have not only reached the summit of Chinese poetry's history, but also enjoy a special place in the treasury of world poetry.3 2 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 166“词” 原是用于配乐歌唱的一种诗体。 句子长短不一， 所以又叫 “曲子词” “长短句” 。 “词” 有固定的调子和格式， 即“词牌”，如“念奴娇”“水调歌头”等。常用的词牌有 100 多个。 Ci is one of the forms of ancient poetry, and is also known as musical Ci poetry as it can be sung to music. Because the length of the lines in a Ci poem may differ, it is also called "long and short -line verses." Ci poetry has regular tunes and formats, which are known as "ci pai ." The commonly referenced ci pai total more than one hundred, including " nian nu jiao " and " shui diao ge tou ." 宋词在发展过程中， 出现了柳永、 苏轼、 李清照、 陆游、 辛弃疾等许多杰出的词人。 In the course of its development, many outstanding Ci composers, such as Liu Yong, Su Shi, Li Qingzhao, Lu You and Xin Qiji have appeared. 柳永是宋代词坛非常具有开创性的词人。在他之前， 宋词以字数少、节拍短的“小令”为主，而柳永创作了大 量节拍缓慢、曲子较长、字数较多的“慢词”，从而扩充了词的内容，也增强了词的表现力。此外，柳永也是宋代创作和使用词牌最多的词人。他的代表作品是《雨霖铃》。 Liu Yong was a very creative poet in the field of ci poetry of the Song Dynasty. Previously, the ci poetry of the Song Dynasty was mainly "xiaoling " featuring fewer characters and shorter times, but Liu invented many "slower ci" with slow times, long length and more characters, hence enriching the contents of ci and increasing its expressive ability. Moreover, Liu Yong created and used more ci pai than any other poets of the Song Dynasty, exemplified in his representative work of Yu Lin Ling.Ci Poetry of the Song Dynasty宋词 水调歌头 苏轼 明月几时有， 把酒问青天。 不知天上宫阙，今夕是何 年。 我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影，何似在人间。 转朱阁，低绮户，照无眠。 不应有恨，何事长向别时 圆。人有悲欢离合，月有阴晴圆缺，此事古难全。但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。 Su Shi's Prelude to Water Melody (Shui Diao Ge Tou ) is offered here as an example for your appreciation. To the Tune Shui Diao Ge Tou (Prelude to Water Melody ) by Su Shi On the Mid-Autumn Festival of the year Bingchen I drank happily till dawn and wrote this in my cups while thinking of Ziyou. Bright moon, when was your birth? Wine cup in hand, I ask the deep blue sky; Not knowing what year it is tonight in those celestial palaces on high. I long to fly back on the wind, yet dread those crystal towers, those courts of jade, freezing to death among those icy heights! Instead I rise to dance with my pale shadow; better off, after all, in the world of men. Rounding the red pavilion Stooping to look through gauze windows, she shines on the sleepless. The moon should know no sadness; why, then, is she always full when dear ones are parted? For men, the grief of parting, joy of reunion, just as the moon wanes and waxes, is bright or dim; always some flaw — and so it has been since of old. My one wish for you, then, is long life and a share in this loveliness far, far away!小知识·Small Encyclopedia （转至下页） (Go to the next page) 文学篇 Literature 167苏轼在诗、 词、 书、 画等方面， 都拥有崇高的地位。苏轼的词有 抒发报国壮志的，有描写自然景象的，也有写离愁别恨的，等等。他的词具有热情豪放、清新流畅的特点，为宋词创作开辟了新天地。代表作品有《念奴娇·赤壁怀古》 《水调歌头 ·明月几时有》 等。 Su Shi held a highly esteemed position in the fields of poetry, ci poetry, calligraphy and painting. His ci poems are unrestrained, refreshing and smooth, with some expressing his patriotism, others describing country scenes, and still more depicting grievances when loved ones had to part. His ci poems blazed a new trail for the evolution of ci poetry of the Song Dynasty, with representative works including the Nian Nu Jiao—Commemorate the Ancient at Chibi and the Shui Diao Ge Tou (Prelude to Water Melody ). 李清照是宋代杰出的女词人。她的词清新精巧，满怀 真情。有的表达了对爱情的理解和追求；有的描写了春花 秋月的变化对人的影响；有的表现了国破家亡带来的人生苦难；等。代表作品有《声声慢·寻寻觅觅》 《一剪梅》等。 Li Qingzhao was an outstanding ci poetess of the Song Dynasty. Her works are exquisite, refined and full of passionate feelings. These ci poems express her understanding and pursuit of true love, describe the impact of the changing seasons on human feelings, and reflect the misery of people suffering from the fall of their country and the disasters that befell families. Her representative poems include the Sheng Sheng Man (Sounds Slower and Slower ) and the Yi Jian Mei (A Twig of Wintersweets ). 直到今天，宋词仍然深受人们的喜爱，很多有名的词 还被重新谱曲，广为传唱。《宋词三百首》是许多家庭必 备的读物。 Ci poetry remains popular even today; a number of renowned Ci poems have been set to new tunes for singing, and the Three Hundred Song Ci Poems is a treasure in many households.这是一首中秋月夜词人为 怀念弟弟而写的词。词人以充 沛的激情、丰富的想象，给人们绘制出一幅幅美丽的画面，时而天上，时而人间，如梦境般美妙。这首词表达了作者对所有经受着离别之苦的人的美好祝愿。 The poet wrote this poem to express his yearning for his younger brother. With strong passion and a rich imagination, he depicted one beautiful scene after another — in the heavens at one moment, and on earth in the next, as wonderful as a dream. This poem presents a heart-felt wish to all people who suffer from loss: Have a long life and share in the lovely moonlight.（接上页） (Continued from previous page) A portrait of Su Shi An illustration to A Twig of Wintersweets composed by Li Qingzhao1. 苏轼像 2. 李清照《一剪梅》诗意图 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 168小注解·Footnotes ① 念白：戏剧中的对话和 独白。 ① Nianbai: Dialogues and monologue in dramas中国戏曲在经历了漫长的发展过程之后，到元代形成 了“元杂剧”。元杂剧集音乐、歌舞、表演、念白①于一体， 是比较成熟的戏剧形式。 Chinese local opera developed into zaju in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 -1368 AD) after long years of evolvement. The zaju of the Yuan Dynasty was a relatively matured form of drama integrating music, singing, dancing, performing and nianbai (speaking)①. 元杂剧的兴盛， 使元代成为中国戏曲史上的黄金时代。 当时有姓名记载的杂剧作家就有 200 多位，有记载可查的 杂剧剧本有 700 多种。元杂剧从多个方面反映了当时的社会现实，表达了人民大众追求美好生活的愿望。 The rise of zaju made the Yuan Dynasty the golden age of Chinese opera. As far as we know today, there were written documents about more than 200 playwrights and more than 700 zaju scripts. The zaju of the Yuan Dynasty reflected the social reality of that time, and expressed the desire of the masses for a better life. 关汉卿是元代成就最高、影响最大的戏剧家。他一生 写了 60 多部杂剧，现存的还有 18 部。关汉卿的杂剧大多 表现了下层妇女的苦难与斗争， 歌颂了她们的机智与勇敢。他的代表作《窦娥 （Dòu É） 冤》是元杂剧中最著名的悲剧。 故事叙述了善良的女子窦娥遭人陷害，被官府关进监狱，最终含冤被杀的悲情故事，深刻地表现了作家对社会的不满和对弱者的同情。关汉卿的创作对后世戏曲的发展产生了巨大的影响， 他的作品被译为英、 法、 德、 日等多国文字，在世界各地广泛传播。 Guan Hanqing was the greatest and most prolific playwright of the era. He created over 60 plays in his life, of which 18 are still extant. 元杂剧 Zaju of the Yuan Dynasty 1 2 文学篇 Literature 169Most of Guan's works reflected the misery and struggles of women at the bottom of the society and highly praised their wisdom and courage. His representative work The Grievance of Dou E (also translated as Snow in Midsummer ) is the best known of the zaju tragedies. It tells of a kind -hearted young woman falsely accused and thrown into prison by the local authorities and finally murdered. Through this play, the author expressed his indignation against the society and his sympathy for the weak. Guan's plays have great influence on the development of drama of later generations, and have been translated into many foreign languages such as English, French, German and Japanese, widely spreading throughout the world. 王实甫是元代另一位杰出的戏剧家。他的《西厢记》 是中国古代戏曲的杰作。剧本描写的是大户人家的崔莺莺 （Cuī Yīnɡyīnɡ） 与穷书生张生的爱情故事，提出了“愿 普天下有情人都成眷 （juàn） 属”的美好主题。剧中莺莺 的侍女红娘，天真活泼、机智勇敢，深受人们喜爱，她热 心为莺莺和张生出主意、 传送书信， 最终促成了他们的结合。汉语“红娘”一词，现已成为媒人的代称。 Wang Shifu was another renowned playwright of the period, and his work The West Chamber has been considered as a masterpiece in the history of Chinese drama. The play tells a love story of Cui Yingying and Zhang Sheng, ending with a declaration that, "all those in love shall be wedded." Hongniang, a character in the drama as the maidservant of Cui Yingying, is naive, lively, tactful and brave, and is thus loved by audiences. She is a warm -hearted counselor and messenger of Yingying and Zhang Sheng, and finally consummates the marriage of the latter two. "Hongniang" in the Chinese language is now synonymous with "matchmaker." 著名的元杂剧作家还有马致远、 白朴、 郑光祖、 纪君祥等。纪君祥的著名剧目《赵氏孤儿》曾于 18 世纪传入欧洲，并被改编成《中国孤儿》，受到了世界的瞩目。 Other well -known playwrights include Ma Zhiyuan, Bai Pu, Zheng Guangzu and Ji Junxiang. Notably, Ji's famous drama The Orphan of the Zhao Family was introduced to Europe in the 18th century, and adapted into The Orphan of China , well -received by the audience worldwide. A portrait of Guan Hanqing An illustration of the drama The Grievance of Dou E An illustration of the drama The West Chamber1. 关汉卿像 2.《窦娥冤》插图 3.《西厢记》插图 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 170明清时期，中国古典小说的创作取得了辉煌的成就， 杰出的代表作品有四大文学名著 《三国演义》 《水浒传》 《西 游记》 《红楼梦》 以及写鬼狐的小说 《聊斋志异》 等。 如今，这些作品已被改编成影视作品，受到中外观众的喜爱。 The Ming (1368 -1644 AD) and Qing (1644 -1911 AD) Dynasties witnessed great achievements in the creation of fiction. Representative works include The Romance of Three Kingdoms , the Outlaws of the Marsh , the Journey to the West , A Dream of Red Mansions and the Strange Tales of Liaozhai . Today, those works enjoy high esteem throughout the world, with film and TV adaptations being welcomed by audiences both at home and abroad. 《三国演义》是中国第一部长篇章回体①小说，也是历 史演义②小说的开山之作。作者是元末明初的罗贯中，他根 据历史记载和民间流传的三国故事创作了这部小说。《三 国演义》主要描写了以曹操、刘备、孙权为首的魏、蜀、吴三国之间在军事、政治上的种种斗争，反映了当时动荡的社会现实。书中塑造了许多不同性格的人物，如神机妙算的诸葛亮、 奸诈多疑的曹操、 忠勇的关羽、 鲁莽的张飞等，给人留下了深刻的印象。 The Romance of Three Kingdoms is the earliest zhanghuiti① and lishi yanyi② novel in China. The author, Luo Guanzhong, lived in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasties. This novel was written on the basis of historical records and the stories about the three kingdoms that circulated in public. It focuses on military and political rivalries between the kingdoms of Wei, Shu and Wu, reflecting the upheavals of the time. In the novel, the author successfully created a number of impressive characters with varying dispositions, such as Zhuge Liang, a superb strategist, the cunning and suspicious Cao Cao, loyal and brave Guan Yu, and rash and reckless Zhang Fei, etc.Fiction of the Ming and Qing Dynasties明清小说 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 章回体：中国长篇小说 的一种体裁。 全书分成若干回， 每回都有一个标题，用来概括全回的内容，各回之间在内容上相互关联。例如《红楼梦》全书共 120 回。 ①Zhanghuiti : A style of novels of China. For a zhanghuiti novel, the whole book is divided into hui (chapters), each of which has a caption generalizing the content of the entire chapter, and the content of all chapters is consistent. For example, A Dream of the Red Mansions is composed of 120 hui in total. ② 历史演义：小说体裁的 一种。 以一定的历史时期为背景， 以史书及传说为材料，增添一些细节，用章回体写的小说。 ②Lishi yanyi : A form of zhanghuiti novels, which take a certain historical period as the background, are based on history books and legends, with some details added. 文学篇 Literature 171《水浒传》是一部描写农民起义的长篇小说。作者施 耐庵是元末明初人，他根据民间流传的北宋末年宋江起义 的故事，编写成这部小说。全书主要描写了宋江领导的梁山 ③农民起义从兴起到失败的过程，揭露了“官逼民反”的 社会现实。 书中成功塑造了 108 位梁山好汉的形象， 其中 “武松打虎” “鲁智深倒拔垂杨柳” 等故事， 至今令人百读不厌。 The Outlaws of the Marsh is a novel about a peasant rebellion. The author Shi Naian lived in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasties. Based on popular stories about a peasant rebellion led by a man called Song Jiang in the late Song Dynasty, Shi created this novel. It describes the rise and fall of the peasant rebellion led by Song Jiang in the area of the Liangshan Mountains ③, reflecting the social reality of "the rebellion of civilians driven by persecution of officials." The novel successfully depicts 108 heroic rebels. Episodes like "Wu Song Strikes a Tiger" and "Lu Zhishen Pulls Out a Willow Tree" remain popular to this day. 《西游记》是明代人吴承恩创作的神话长篇小说。取 材于唐代僧人玄奘去印度取经的事迹。 主要描写了孙悟空、 猪八戒、沙和尚保护唐僧去西天取经的故事。他们一路上打败了很多妖怪，经历了 81 次困难和危险，终于取回了真经。这部小说想象丰富、情节曲折，塑造了孙悟空、猪八戒等多个人们喜闻乐见的形象， “大闹天宫” “三打白骨精”等情节一直被人们津津乐道。 The Journey to the West is a renowned mythical novel. The author Wu Cheng'en of the Ming Dynasty wrote this book on the basis of stories about Xuan Zang, a monk of the Tang Dynasty who traveled to India in the face of many hardships to fetch Buddhist scriptures. The book tells how Monkey, Pig and Sandy escorted and protected the Buddhist priest on his way to the West. They subdue all kinds of demons during the journey and survive 81 calamities to finally bring back the scriptures. The novel's complicated plot is rife with fantasies, creating the figures of Monkey and Pig, which are audience favorites. Particularly, such episodes as "The Monkey Creates Havoc in Heaven" and "The Monkey Strikes the Fiend Three Times" have been favorite folklore for ages. 清代作家曹雪芹创作的《红楼梦》，是中国古典小说 中最优秀的作品。小说本名《石头记》，说的是女娲补天 Taking Oath in the Peach Garden — an episode of the Romance of Three kingdoms Sun Wukong Strikes the Fiend Three Times — an episode of the Journey to the WestLin Chong Set off to Liangshan Mountain on a Snowy Night — an episode of the Outlaws of the Marsh1.《三国演义》——桃园结义（国画） 3.《西游记》—— 孙悟空三打白骨精 （国画）2.《水浒传》 — —林冲雪夜上梁山 （国 画）2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 172时留在人间的一块顽石的传奇。这块顽石幻化为贾宝玉， 他经历了与林黛玉和薛宝钗的爱情悲剧，目睹了 12 位贵族女子的悲惨人生，体验了贵族家庭由盛而衰的巨变。书中塑造了 400 多个栩栩如生的人物，如贾宝玉、林黛玉、薛宝钗、王熙凤等。整部小说情节生动，语言优美，是中国古典小说创作的最高峰， 在世界文学史上也占有重要地位。 A Dream of Red Mansions , written by Cao Xueqin of the Qing Dynasty, is the best classic novel of China. Originally known as The Story of A Stone , the novel is about the legend of a stone that N ü wa left in the human world when she mended the sky. That stone incarnates itself in Jia Baoyu, who underwent a tragedy of romance with Lin Daiyu and Xue Baochai, witnessed the tragic fate of 12 women from noble families, and experienced the great change of noble families from prosperity to decline. The novel depicted more than 400 life-like characters, including Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, Xue Baochai and Wang Xifeng. The whole novel is full of fascinating stories and superb language; it has reached the zenith of the Chinese classic novels, and holds an important position in the history of world literature as well. 《聊斋志异》是一部著名的文言短篇小说集，作者是 蒲松龄。 全书共有 491 篇， 绝大部分篇章写的是神仙、 狐精、 鬼怪、花妖与人之间的故事，如《聂小倩》描写的是人与鬼的爱情，《香玉》描写了人和牡丹花妖的恋爱……作者通过这些故事，揭露了封建制度的黑暗与不公，表现了青年男女追求恋爱自由的愿望，歌颂美德，控诉罪恶。整部小说故事情节曲折离奇，深受人们喜爱，堪称中国文言短篇小说的巅峰之作。 Strange Tales of Liaozhai , authored by Pu Songling, is a collection of 491 short stories written in classical Chinese language. Most stories in this book are about the contact between human beings and the spirit world, such as Nie Xiaoqian , which depicts the love between a human being and a ghost; Xiang Yu , meanwhile, is an account of a love story between a scholar and the Peony Immortal. Through stories like those, the author exposed the dark and unjust feudal society, expressed the wishes of young men and women to have a marriage of their own free will, praised fine moral ethics, and denounced corrupt officials. The stories in this collection have complicated and astonishing plots, and are deeply loved by readers. It deserves its status as the best story collection of China in classical Chinese language.小注解·Footnotes ③梁山：在中国山东省境 内，是《水浒传》中农民起义 军的所在地。 ③ Liangshan Mountain: Within today's Shandong Province, China, the settlement of a peasant uprising army in the Outlaws of the Marsh . 1 Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu reading the Western Chamber — an episode of A Dream of the Red Mansions1.《红楼梦》—— 宝玉与黛玉共读 《西厢记》 文学篇 Literature 17320 世纪的中国文学经历了划时代的变革，从延续了几 千年的古典文学转变为现代文学。作家们在光辉灿烂、源 远流长的民族文化传统的基础上，广泛吸收外部世界先进的文化养料，创造了许多优秀的新文学作品。 Chinese literature in the 20th century underwent an epochal change, transforming the classical literature that had lasted for thousands of years into modern literature. On the basis of splendid traditional national culture, writers extensively absorbed advanced cultural nourishment from the outside world, and thus created many brilliant new literary works. 鲁迅是中国新文学的奠基者。他曾到日本学习西医， 后来放弃医学，开始从事文学创作。中篇小说《阿 Q 正传》 是鲁迅的代表作。小说的主人公阿 Q 是中国社会最底层的农民，他愚昧麻木、可怜可笑，每当受到欺辱时，都能够自我安慰。读了《阿 Q 正传》的每一个读者，似乎都能从阿 Q 身上看到自己的影子，所以《阿 Q 正传》在中国影响很大，后来还被改编成同名电影。 Lu Xun was one of the founders of the new literature of China. He majored in western -style medicine in Japan, and later gave it up to devote himself to literary creation. The True Story of Ah Q , a novella, is a representative work of Lu Xun. Ah Q, the protagonist of the novella, is a peasant of the lowest class of Chinese society; foolish, numb, pitiful and ridiculous. Each time he is bullied, he is able to console himself. All readers of The True Story of Ah Q seem able to see in Ah Q reflections of themselves. Thus, the book is very influential in China, and was adapted into a film under the same name. 老舍在北京城的贫民家庭长大，他的文学创作一直以 关心市民生活为核心，文学成就巨大，有“老北京风情画” 的美誉，他也因此获得“人民艺术家”的称号。老舍的代表作《骆驼祥子》，描写了生活在北平（北京的旧称）的人力车夫祥子的悲惨一生，表现了 20 世纪 20 年代末战争Chinese Literature in the 20th Century20 世纪中国文学 Lu Xun Zhang Ailing1. 鲁迅 2. 张爱玲 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 174背景下普通人的苦难生活。老舍的另一部重要作品是《四 世同堂》，小说以祁家祖孙四代为中心，描写了日本占据北平时期人民的悲惨生活和精神世界。 Lao She grew up in a deprived family in Beijing, so his literary creation focused on the life of townsfolk. Earning great literary achievements, his works have been hailed as "a picture of the social life of old Beijing," and he thereby obtained the title of "the people's artist." Lao She's representative work Camel Xiangzi depicts the miserable life of Xiangzi, a rickshaw boy in old Beijing prior to 1949, and records the hardships of ordinary people in the background of wars during the late 1920s. Another important work of Lao She is the Four Generations under One Roof , which is centered on the four generations of the Qi family, describing the miserable life and the inner world of people in Beijing during the occupation by Japanese invaders. 张爱玲是中国 20 世纪很有影响的女作家。她最优秀的 作品是《金锁记》，小说女主人公曹七巧曾经是一个让人 喜爱的姑娘，后来被迫嫁给患有重病的富家少爷，深受生活折磨的七巧在丈夫死后产生了强烈的复仇欲望，她拒绝恋人的真情， 也不让女儿出嫁， 最终成为冷酷无情的人。 《倾城之恋》是她又一部深受读者喜爱的作品，讲述的是外表洋化现代、内心封建保守的白流苏与狡猾世故的范柳原在战争这个特殊背景下的爱情故事。 Zhang Ailing (Eileen Chang) was an influential female writer of China in the 20th century. Zhang's best work is Jin Suo Ji . Cao Qiqiao, the story's protagonist, was once a lovely girl, but she was forced to marry a young master of a rich family who suffered from serious illness. Heavily tortured by life, Qiqiao is overcome with the desire for revenge after the death of her husband. She rejects the love of her true admirer, and prohibits her daughter to get married, ultimately becoming a ruthless woman. Qing Cheng Zhi Lian is another work of hers that won over readers. This novel tells the love story set during wartime between Bai Liusu, who has a conservative heart despite her westernized outer appearance, and Fan Liuyuan, who is cunning and sophisticated. 除小说外，诗歌、散文、戏剧等文学形式 也经历了向现代文学转变的过程，并出现了许 多杰出的作品，如戏剧大师曹禺的《雷雨》，被反复搬上舞台，称得上世纪名篇。 Apart from fiction, other literary forms such as verse, prose and drama (opera) also experienced the transformation into modern literature, presenting many outstanding works. For example, Thunderstorm , a play of Cao Yu, has been repeatedly performed on the stage, worthy of being called a masterpiece of the last century. A still of Thunderstorm (drama)1. 话剧《雷雨》剧照 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 175 民族篇艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 敦煌壁画 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 176 中国传统艺术起源很早。原始人祭祀 鬼神的歌舞或许是最早的艺术，考古发 现的距今几千年的骨质笛子以及描画着神秘图案的彩陶等器物 , 向我们展示了中华民族艺术的早期面貌。此后，商周时代的青铜器、汉代的文学、魏晋南北朝的书法和石窟艺术、唐代的诗歌和音乐、宋元的词曲和山水画、明清的戏曲和园林等各类艺术，都取得了极高的成就。 The origin of traditional Chinese arts, both of the visual and auditory variety, dates back to very ancient times. The singing and dancing of primitive human beings in ritualistic worship of gods and ghosts might be the earliest art, while bone flutes and colorful pottery with mysterious designs discovered by archaeologists have a history over thousands of years, offering more evidence to suggest the early appearance of the national arts of China. Later emerged the bronze ware of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties; the literature of the Han Dynasty; the calligraphy of the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties; the poetry and music of the Tang Dynasty; the ci poetry, drama and landscape paintings of the Song and Yuan Dynasties; and the Chinese operas and gardening arts of the Ming and Qing Dynasties; all had reached very high levels of achievements. 传统艺术的范畴很广，包括书法、工艺等实用艺术，绘画、雕塑等造型艺术，舞蹈、 音乐等表演艺术。一些内容已在其他章节介绍了，这里不再重复。 Traditional Chinese arts take a wide range of forms, including the practical arts of calligraphy and craftsmanship, the fine arts of painting and sculpture, and the performance arts of dance and music. Those that have been introduced in previous chapters will be omitted here. 中华民族传统的体育项目丰富多彩，其中有些已经发展成为国际性的运动项目，受 到世界各国人民的喜爱。 Meanwhile, the physical culture of China is rich and varied and some sports have now become widely popular in the international arena.概述 Introduction 《白蛇传》剧照 A still of The Tale of the White Serpent 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 177书法 Calligraphy 书法是汉字的书写艺术。 Calligraphy is the traditional art of writing Chinese characters. 书法艺术是以汉字的方块结构和线条变化为基础的。 中国人创造的方块汉字，已经融入了他们对造型美的基本 见解，即结构平衡、线条流畅，整齐且富于变化，每一个汉字都有艺术上的合理性。 书法作品更加注意字体结构， 点、横、竖等基本笔画写出来要美观，一个字形的上下、左右、大小、疏密要处理得和谐自然；字与字、行与行之间也要合理安排。书法的另一个显著特点是讲究笔墨。毛笔柔软而富有弹性，书写时，毛笔笔锋的粗细、墨色的浓淡会使作品呈现出不同的艺术特色。 Calligraphic arts are based on the square structure and lines of Chinese characters. The Chinese people embodied their philosophy of the beauty of shapes into the invention of Chinese characters: With balanced structure and smooth, clean and changeable form, each Chinese character evokes a sense of artistry. Calligraphic works pay more attention to the structures of script types; for example, the component parts, size and spacing of a Chinese character should be harmonious and natural, and the spaces between words and lines should also be carefully arranged. Another notable characteristic of Chinese calligraphy is the use of brush pens and Chinese ink. Brush pens are soft and elastic; in writing, the thickness and thinness of the tip of brush pens and the ink can present distinct artistic features. 1. 泰不华篆书《陋室铭》卷 2. 万经隶书《七绝诗》轴Tai BuHua writing the seal character of the Loushiming Wan Jing writing the official script of the Four- line Poems1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 178 常见的书 法字体有篆 书、隶书、楷书、草书和行书。不同的字体有不同的结构特征、用笔特征和整体风貌。篆书线条 粗细一样，圆转流畅，表现出书法的曲线美；隶书笔画有波状起伏，并有明显的粗细轻重等变化；楷书字形方正工整；草书笔画相连， 线条飞舞， 生动而有气势；行书的 “行”是快速行走的意思，它既不像楷书那么工整，也不像草书那么难认，是一种方便的手写体。人们用得最多的是楷书和行书，其中楷书是练习书法的基础。 Common styles of Chinese calligraphy include seal, official, regular, cursive and semi -cursive (running) scripts. Different calligraphic styles have varying structural, brush -using and general characteristics. The seal script, for instance, features round and smooth lines that retain the same width, showcasing the aesthetic effect through calligraphic curviness; the strokes of lishu script are undulate, and vary markedly in width and strength; regular script is square and neat; cursive script has continuous, dance -like strokes, and is thus lively and vigorous; the word "running" in "running script" suggests "speediness," so semi -cursive script is not as neat as regular script, nor is it so illegible as cursive script, presenting a sort of convenient handwriting. Among all these scripts, regular script and semi -cursive script are the most frequently used, and regular script is the very foundation of the exercise of calligraphy.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 历代著名的书法家和书法流 派：小篆的创立者是秦朝丞相李 斯。 东汉蔡邕 （yōnɡ） 擅长写隶书， 他还独创“飞白书”，即写字时笔画中故意露出丝丝白道，好像用墨汁干枯的毛笔写成。三国时钟繇完成了楷书的定型化。东晋王羲之的楷书、草书、行书都写得很好， 被后人称为 “书圣” ， 《兰亭序》是王羲之的行书代表作，历来被称为“天下行书第一”。唐代欧阳询、颜真卿、柳公权都以楷书见长，他们的字体被称作“欧体”“颜体”“柳体”。张旭和怀素擅长草书，张旭被称为 “草圣”。宋徽宗赵佶创造的“瘦 金体”影响深远。 Famous calligraphers and calligraphic genres through generations: The founder of small seal script was Li Si, premier of the Qin Dynasty. Cai Yong of the Eastern Han Dynasty excelled at writing lishu and ultimately created the style of " feibai shu," which deliberately leaves white blanks within the traces of strokes, as if they were written by dry brush pens. Zhong Yao of the Three Kingdoms Period finalized the style of regular script. Wang Xizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty wrote regular script, cursive script and semi-cursive script skillfully, and has been praised as a "sage calligrapher" by later generations; The Preface to Lanting was Wang Xizhi's representative semi-cursive script work, and has been viewed as the "first semi-cursive script work in the world" for generations. Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan of the Tang Dynasty produced outstanding regular script, and their styles have been respectively called "Ou's style," "Yan's style" and "Liu's style." Both Zhang Xu and Huai Su were masterful at cursive handwriting, and Zhang has been called "sage cursive script calligrapher." And Zhao Ji, Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, created the "slim golden style," which has been profoundly influential. 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 179中国历史上出现过很多著名的书法家，如三国钟繇 （Zhōnɡ Yáo） ， 东晋王羲之 （Wánɡ Xīzhī） ， 唐代欧阳询、 怀素、 颜真卿、 柳公权， 宋代苏轼、 宋徽宗赵佶 （Zhào Jí）， 等。 他们经过多年的勤学苦练， 形成了不同的风格和流派， 使中国的书法艺术达到了很高的水平。 There have been many famous calligraphers in the history of China, such as Zhong Yao of the Three Kingdoms Period, Wang Xizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Ouyang Xun, Huaisu, Yan Zhenqing, Liu Gongquan of the Tang Dynasty, and Su Shi and Zhao Ji the Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. Each master, after years of hard practice, formed a unique calligraphic style and school to raise the profile of Chinese calligraphy to a towering level. 　　　A portrait of Wang Xizhi The original handwriting of The Preface to Lanting3. 王羲之像 4.《兰亭序》墨迹 1. 欧阳询楷书《仲尼梦奠帖》 2. 颜真卿行书《祭侄文稿》 5. 怀素草书《自叙帖》A regular script by Ouyang Xun A running script by Yan Zhenqing A cursive script by Huai Su2 4 3 5 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 180中国绘画被称为“中国画”“国画”。它是以中国特 有的毛笔，用墨汁或其他颜料，在宣纸、绢帛以及墙壁上 描绘形象。 中国画在绘画技法和美学追求等方面独树一帜，呈现出与西方绘画截然不同的特色。 Traditional Chinese painting refers to the execution of a picture on a piece of Xuan paper, silk or wall with a Chinese brush that has absorbed black ink or colored pigments. It is quite different from Western painting in terms of skill and aesthetic pursuit, showcasing Oriental painting's striking uniqueness. 笔墨 在中国人眼里，浓淡不同的墨色可以代表各种 颜色，因此有“墨分五彩”之说。而毛笔有大有小且收放 自如，画家可以用浓淡、干湿不同的水墨和不同技巧的笔法，展现出丰富的色彩与线条效果。如清代画家郑板桥画的竹子， 画面上的几枝竹子， 有的墨色较浓， 有的墨色较淡，让人明显感觉到距离的远近， 因而表现出丰富的层次， 同时，从不同的墨色也可以看出竹叶的老嫩。 The density of ink 　In the eyes of Chinese, ink of different densities can stand for various colors, owing to the phrase that "ink can be divided into five colors." Moreover, brush pens come in different 中国画 Traditional Chinese Painting Fishing Alone on the Freezing River , a painting by Ma Yuan Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival , a painting by Zhang Zeduan Black Grapes , a painting by Xu Wei1. 马远《寒江独钓》 2. 张择端《清明上河图》（局部） 3. 徐渭《墨葡萄》 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 181sizes and can be applied with whatever amount of pressure the painter chooses. A painter can employ ink in diverse densities and strokes of different strength to represent an abundance of colors and strong line drawing effects. The bamboo paintings by Zheng Banqiao, a painter of the Qing Dynasty, offer one example. Some bamboo in the painting were painted with thick ink while others used a thinner kind, clearly demonstrating different distances and thus lending a strong sense of layers; meanwhile, different colors of ink indicate the age of bamboo leaves. 形似与神似 形指具体的形态，神指神采、品格。中 国画注重表现物体的内在精神，如山水的气势、人物的精 神气质、花鸟的灵动等。如画梅花，就要画出它凌霜傲雪或孤芳自赏的意味，并不强求如何逼真。 Similarity in Shape and Alikeness in Spirit 　Chinese paintings take into account the internal spirit of objects; for example, the grandeur of mountains and water, the internal disposition of characters, the spirituality of flowers and birds. When a painter paints wintersweets, he should depict their defiance of frost or snow, or show admiration of their own purity; in contrast, the verisimilitude of wintersweets is not so important to either the painter or the viewer. 构图 中国画不像西方绘画那样，画家假设自己固定 在某一个点上来观察事物， 而是用流动的眼光来看待事物， 在作画时经常采用多个视点观察物体。如我们非常熟悉的北宋张择端的 《清明上河图》 ， 它反映的是北宋都城汴梁 （现在的河南开封）物阜民丰、气象万千的景象。它以汴河为中心， 从远处的郊野画到热闹的市区；观众既能看到城内， 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 182又可看到郊外；既看得到桥上的行人，又看得到桥下的游 船；既看得到近处的楼台树木，又看得到远处纵深的街道与河港。 而且无论站在哪一段看， 景物的比例都是相近的。这样的景象，如果按照西方绘画的理论去画，许多地方是根本无法画出来的。用这种方法，中国画家可以表现空间跨度较大的山川江河，甚至把整条长江都画到一幅画中。这使中国画不受时间和空间的限制，画面容量扩大，体现了中国艺术极强的概括力。 Structure of the painting 　Chinese brushworks differ from Western paintings. A Western painter tends to observe objects at a certain fixed point, whereas a Chinese painter looks at something with a moving perspective, often taking several points of view to observe the objects of a painting. For example, the Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival painted by Zhang Zeduan of the Song Dynasty, which is very familiar to students of Chinese art, depicts an abundant view both inside and outside Bianliang, the capital city of the Northern Song Dynasty (today's Kaifeng, Henan). The painting takes the Bianhe River as a central point, stretching from the suburbs in the distance to the busy urban area, allowing the viewer to see the inside of the city and the outer suburbs, gaze at passengers on a bridge and boats below, as well as buildings and trees nearby and streets and river docks far away. Furthermore, regardless of which section the viewpoint is at, the proportion of scenery is always approximate. From the point of view of Western painting, however, such an effect is impossible. By employing this method, Chinese painters are able to represent landscapes of a large distance, even painting the whole Yangtze River in a single work. Chinese paintings are thereby freed from the restrictions of time and space, enlarging the capacity of the image spacing and displaying Chinese art's tremendous ability of generalization. 诗情画意 中国传统的诗词和绘画实际都是通过 描绘一种特殊的氛围和境界来抒发作者的主观感受 的。诗与画表现的内容与意境非常接近。比如，看宋代马远的画《寒江独钓》，就会想到唐代柳宗元的诗《江雪》 ： “千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。孤舟蓑笠翁， 独钓寒江雪。” 二者所传达出的孤独清冷的意境是一 致的。“画中有诗”，即画中有一种诗的意境美，是对一幅中国画的极高评价。 Listening to Bamboos in an Office Room , a painting by Zheng Banqiao The Shrimps painted by Qi BaishiA portrait of Qi Baishi1. 郑板桥《衙斋听竹图》 3. 齐白石《群虾图》2. 齐白石像 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 183Poetic atmosphere 　In fact, both traditional Chinese poetry and traditional Chinese painting express the subjective feelings of the authors by depicting a specific atmosphere, which poems and painting alike are able to capture. For instance, the painting Fishing Alone on the Freezing River painted by Ma Yuan of the Song Dynasty evokes the poem Snow River written by Liu Zongyuan of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "A thousand hills, but no birds in flight,/Ten thousand paths, with no person's tracks./A lonely boat, a straw-hatted old man,/Fishing alone in the cold river snow." Both convey the same atmosphere of loneliness and desolation. It is said that "a painting contains a poem inside" — that is, a painting should have the aesthetic ambiance of a poem, is a highest standard for a work of Chinese painting. 此外，中国画常常会留下一些空白，用以表示天空、 云气、河水等。画家有时故意在画面上留出一些空间，让 观众去想象它应有的含义。当代著名画家齐白石画虾不画水、画蝌蚪不画青蛙，但观众却可以从虾和蝌蚪游动的姿态感受到水和青蛙的存在。 中国画的画幅也与西洋画不同，或者很窄很长，或者很细很高，长宽比例是“失调”的，但它能够很好地表现特殊的意境和画家的主观情趣。 In addition, Chinese paintings often leave blank spaces to stand for the sky, clouds, air, and river water. Sometimes, a painter uses emptiness deliberately within the frame, letting viewers fill the space with their imagination. For instance, Qi Baishi, a famous modern painter, omitted water when he painted shrimps and excluded frogs when he painted tadpoles, but viewers can sense the existence of water and frogs from the swimming postures of shrimps and tadpoles. The sizes of Chinese paintings are different from Western ones; the former are either very narrow and long or very narrow and high, with "disproportioned" length and width, but such disproportion can effectively represent a particular atmosphere and the painters' sentiments. 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 184篆刻 Seal Cutting 篆刻，就是以刀代笔，按照已经写好的书法，或者画 好的图像，在石头等材料上进行刻写。这样完成的作品叫 作印章，字体多为篆字，因而叫“篆刻”。印章文字刻成凸状的称为“阳文”，刻成凹状的称为“阴文”。印章用的材料有玉、石、金属、兽角、象牙、竹木等，其中使用最广泛的是石料。 Seal cutting refers to carving with a knife on a block of some material such as stones in the design of calligraphy, or a diagram already painted. A block thus carved is called a seal, and the font most often used is a seal script, hence the name of "seal cutting." Characters are either carved in relief or cut deep into the stone or wood, which is called intaglio. Materials used for seal cutting include jade, stones, metal, animal horns, ivory, bamboo and wood, of which the most extensively used are stones. 篆刻的艺术特点是融字法、章法、刀法为一体。书法 是篆刻的基础，刻印章要有一定的书法功底。章法是指构 图艺术，字与字之间的排列，要疏密得当，彼此呼应。刀法是使用刻刀的不同方法， 例如， 将刀子尖部用力刻入石内，这样刻出的笔道两面都会出现破残 , 看起来浑厚古 朴；要 是把刀稳住往前推刻，出现的字会显得沉着大方。 Seal cutting is a combination of calligraphy, composition of the picture and carving. Calligraphy is the very basis of seal cutting, and the cutter must first receive some calligraphic training. Composition of the picture refers to the art of frame structure, and the layout of characters should be properly spaced and correspond with each other. For carving itself, the knife can be used via different methods; for instance, when the tip of a knife is pressed hard into the stone, the stroke will have nicks on both sides and thus reveal vigor, antiqueness and elegant simplicity; if the knife is pushed steadily forward, the script will then appear sedate and graceful. The jade seal "the seal of Gongsun Gu" of Qin Dynasty The gold seal "the seal of the king of Yunnan" of Western Han Dynasty Seal cutting refers to carving with a knife on a according to a diagram or calligraphy painted on it1. 秦“公孙榖印”玉印 2. 西汉“滇王之印”金印 3. 以刀代笔，在印材上刻写书法或 图像 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 185印章兼有实用和观赏的双重功用。它在 3,000 多年前 的殷商时代就已经出现， 最初是 “权力” 和 “凭信” 的象征， 在皇帝的诏书、官吏的文件以及各种公文和一些契约上加盖印章作为凭证。唐宋时期，一些人在书画作品上加盖私人印章， 书法、 绘画、 印章相得益彰， 增添了艺术品的美感。文人擅长书画的，也可以自己动手做印章，印文也从人名发展到诗文、名言警句和收藏鉴赏纪录等。篆刻逐渐成为一种可以独立欣赏的艺术。明清两代，篆刻作为一门造型艺术非常兴盛，不同风格、不同流派应运而生。现代绘画大师吴昌硕、齐白石等的篆刻都很有影响。 The seal has both practicality and artistic value. Its use dates back to the Shang Dynasty over 3,000 years ago; as a token of pledge or a symbol of power, it was stamped on an emperor's decrees, officials' documents, various other official files and some covenants. In the Tang (618 -907 AD) and Song (960 -1279 AD) Dynasties, some people pressed personal seals on their own calligraphic and painting works, with the calligraphy, painting and seals complimenting each other, and elevating the level of such artistic works. Literati were skilled at calligraphy and painting, and often cut seals by themselves; meanwhile, the words of seals expanded from mere names of people to include poetic lines, logion, epigrams, and records of related collection and appraisement activities. Seal cutting gradually developed into a form of art that was appreciated in its own right. In the Ming (1368 -1644 AD) and Qing (1644 -1911 AD) Dynasties, seal cutting flourished as a kind of shaping art, and different styles and genres appeared. In addition, the seal cutting works of modern painting masters Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi were very influential as well. 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 186 将树木、花草、山石、水、土等材料经过造型处理后， 精心布置在盆器中，集中体现自然之美，表达作者的思想 情趣，这就是中国的盆景艺术。 Chinese bonsai refers to a form of art which deliberately places specially shaped objects such as trees, flowers, grasses, stones, water, soil and so forth in a pot or elsewhere. It is a concentrated representation of the beauty of nature and the thoughts and sentiments of the maker. 盆景一般分为树桩盆景和山水盆景两大类。前者以树 木为主要材料， 制作时用金属丝缠绕， 对原材料进行造型， 然后每隔一定时间再进行细致的修剪，通过促进或控制树桩生长，让它保持一定的姿态。后者较多地以山石、水、土作材料，按照设计好的主题安置在盆中，同时运用近大远小、近实远虚等原理，再配上大小合适的草木、亭桥、鸟兽、人物等，达到小中见大、咫尺千里的艺术效果。 Generally, Chinese bonsai can be divided into stump bonsai and landscape bonsai. The former takes a piece of wood as its main material, wraps it with metal wire to shape the raw objects, and then carefully prunes it, keeping a certain shape by impelling or holding back the growth of the stump. More often than not, the latter makes use of stones, water and soil, places them in a basin in reference to a designed theme, arranges them on the principle that "the nearer, the larger" and "the nearer, the realer," and complements them with plants, pavilions, bridges, birds, animals and human figures, attaining the artistic effect that the large is revealed through the small and that a close look reveals a far distance. 景、盆和放置盆器的几架，是盆景艺术的三要素，有 一定的搭配技巧。树桩盆景多用紫砂盆和彩陶盆；山水盆 景多用大理石、汉白玉或陶制的浅口盆，长方形和椭圆形盆景 Bonsai Chinese bonsai1. 盆景 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 187的居多。而几架或结构简洁，线条刚劲，或雕 镂刻花，精致复杂。景、盆、架要相互谐调，相映成趣。小型盆景可放在桌案上，大型的可放在庭院中。一些盆景还有寓意深远的题名，中国的诗词、典故和成语，常是产生盆景题名的重要源泉。 The scene, the pot and the rack supporting the pot are the three basic elements of Chinese bonsai, and their combination demands certain skills. Stump bonsai mostly make use of purple sand pots and colorful ceramic pots; and landscape bonsai typically use shallow basins made of marble, white marble and pottery, mostly in rectangle and elliptical shapes. The racks either have a simple structure and vigorous lines, or are sculpted into certain designs to look exquisite and complicated. The scene, the pot and the rack should correspond with each other in order to be both harmonious and interesting. Small -sized bonsai can be placed on tables or desks, and large -sized ones can be set in the yard. Some bonsai even have meaningful names, and Chinese poems, historical stories or legends and idioms are often the thematic sources of bonsai names. 盆景是一个微观世界，但它并不等同于山水或植物的 微缩景观。盆景深受中国画的影响，注重境界的创造，通 过盆中景物这一外在形式来表达作者的内心情感和对世界的理解。很多盆景艺术家依照古人的名画来制作盆景。好的盆景如同一首诗、一幅画，被誉为“无声的诗”“立体的画”。盆景造型优美，寓意深远，小中见大，虽然是一个微型世界，但它却是中国艺术的代表形式之一。 　A bonsai is a micro -world, but it is not exactly a mini -sized scene of landscape or plants. Bonsai has been deeply influenced by Chinese painting, and attaches importance to the creation of a unique atmosphere, employing the appearance of bonsai to express the artist's inner feelings and his understanding of the world. Many Chinese bonsai artists create bonsai in reference to ancient people's renowned paintings. A good bonsai is like a poem or painting, and is reputed as a "soundless poem" and "three -dimensional painting." Chinese bonsai have beautiful shapes and profound meanings, showcasing rich cannotation despite their small size. Although they are a miniature world, they are one of the representative forms of Chinese arts. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 188中国民族音乐起源很早，在河南出土的骨笛距今已有 8,000 多年。 早期音乐多是用来表现劳动感受和丰收喜悦的， 也常常用于宗教仪式，与舞蹈和诗歌结合紧密。春秋战国时期，音乐演奏已达到很高水平，湖北曾侯乙墓出土的一组铜编钟，共有 65 件，都是双音钟，即每个钟都可以发出两个不同音高的音。曾侯乙钟表明，早在公元前 5 世纪，中国已有了七声音阶，有绝对音高的概念等。这在世界音乐史上具有重要的意义。 Chinese music has a very early origin, as evidenced by bone flutes excavated in Henan dated at more than 8,000 years ago. The early forms of music were mostly used to express the feelings of labor and the joy of harvests; meanwhile, closely combined with dance and poetry, it was often used in religious ceremonies, too. In the Warring States Period, music performance ascended to a very high level. A set of copper chimes unearthed from the tomb of Yi the Marquis of the State of Zeng in Hubei was composed of 65 double -pitch bells, wherein each bell could make the sounds of two different pitches. The chimes of Yi 民族音乐 Chinese Music The guqin playing by Mr. Gong Yi The performance of pipa by Cheng Yuyu1. 龚一先生的古琴演奏 2. 琵琶演奏（演奏者程雨雨） 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 189the Marquis of the State of Zeng indicate that in the fifth century BC there had been a heptatonic scale and the concept of absolute pitch in China. That discovery is of great significance to the history of world music. 中国音乐中，民族乐器是非常引人注目的。这些乐器 种类繁多， 可分为吹、 拉、 弹、 打四大类。 吹的有箫、 笛子、 唢呐等；拉的有二胡、京胡、板胡等；弹的有古筝、古琴、琵琶等；打的有锣、鼓等。千百年来，中国音乐家创作出了不少优秀曲目，遗憾的是有很多曲目没有保存下来。流传至今的著名曲目有：《十面埋伏》《阳春白雪》《百鸟朝凤》 《广陵散》 《梅花三弄》 《春江花月夜》 《二泉映月》《雨打芭蕉》《步步高》《旱天雷》等。 Chinese musical instruments are highly conspicuous. They come in various types, which can be divided into wind, string, plucked - string and percussion instruments. Wind instruments include xiao (vertical bamboo flute), dizi (horizontal bamboo flute), and suona (woodwind instrument with seven holes on top and one underneath); string instruments include erhu (two -stringed fiddle), jinghu (two - stringed bowed instrument specially used for Peaking opera), and banhu (two -stringed bowed instrument with a thin wooden soundboard); plucked -string instruments include guzheng (21 or 25 -stringed plucked instrument), guqin (Chinese zither), pipa (a plucked string instrument with a fretted fingerboard); and percussion instruments include the gong and drums. For centuries, Chinese musicians have created a great number of superb melodies, but many have unfortunately been lost. The extant melodies include The Ambush on All Sides , the Spring Snow , A Hundred Birds Pay Homage to the Phoenix , the Guangling Melody , The Trilogy of Wintersweet , the Spring River Moon Night , The Moon Reflected on the Second Spring , the Rains Thrashing Chinese Bananas , the Ascending Steps , and the Thunders after Drought , etc. 总体来说，与西方音 乐的重和声配器不同，中 国民族音乐以旋律为主，小知识·Small Encyclopedia 中国著名的器乐作品：琵 琶曲《十面埋伏》，以楚汉战 争为背景， 用类似陈述的方式，依次展现了大战前的准备、战斗的场面和战争结局，其中最精彩的是对战争场面的音乐描述。唢呐独奏曲《百鸟朝凤》，以热烈欢快的旋律和模仿百鸟和鸣的乐声，表现一种喜气洋洋、红火欢腾的气氛，是中国人在喜庆场合喜欢演奏的乐曲。古琴曲《高山流水》用音乐语言再现美丽的山水景色，表达对自然的热爱。《梅花三弄》表现梅花不畏严寒的坚强姿态。《鸥鹭忘机》描述了一个渔夫与一群水鸟和睦相处的情景。 Famous compositions of Chinese music: The Ambush on All Sides , a pipa musical composition, takes the Chu-Han war as its background, employing a method similar to narration to represent in sequence the preparation before the battle, the scene of the battle and the final result, where the most brilliant part is the musical depiction of the battle scene; A Hundred Birds Pay Homage to the Phoenix , a suona solo, represents a joyful atmosphere with ardent and cheerful rhythm and the simulated twitter of birds, and is a musical composition that Chinese people like to perform on festive occasions; the Lofty Mountains and Flowing Water , a piece of guqin music, employs the language of music to reproduce the scenery of a beautiful landscape and the love for nature; The Trilogy of Wintersweet represents the staunch poses of wintersweets, which blossom in defiance of freezing cold; and the Naive Gulls and Airgret depicts the scene of a fisherman coexisting peacefully with a swarm of water birds. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 190追求流畅生动的美感，乐曲体现理性精神和深思遐想的意 境。但也有一种是呈现出节奏的宣泄的，这在民间音乐中相对较多，如陕北腰鼓、山西锣鼓等，在喧闹的节奏中展现出粗犷的阳刚之气。民族乐器的叙事性也是中国音乐的显著特征之一，例如，古琴曲《文姬归汉》就是以音乐的语言讲述汉代女子蔡文姬坎坷人生经历的。 In general, Chinese music is different from Western music, which lays an emphasis on concord orchestration. Chinese music focuses on rhythms, pursues the aesthetic sense of smoothness and vividness, and the musical compositions represent the spirit of rationality and the mood of deep thinking. Meanwhile, there is also the vent of rhythms, which can be more often seen in folk music, such as Shaanbei Yaogu (waist drums in northern Shaanxi) and Shanxi Luogu (gongs and drums in Shanxi); such music displays straightforwardness and vigor through noisy rhythms. Narrative function is another noteworthy characteristic of Chinese music, such as in Wenji's Returning to China , a piece of guqin music, which employs the language of music to depict the life experience, misfortune and frustrations of Cai Wenji. 古代中国人对于音乐的表现力有深刻的理解，对音乐 的功用更有自己独特的认识。孔子认为，音乐和礼仪制度 一样重要，都可以起到维护社会秩序的作用。音乐能净化人心，提升人的精神境界。在古代中国，琴是文人最喜欢的乐器，琴棋书画成为能够代表文人特殊文化素质的生活方式。 With regards to music, ancient Chinese people had a profound understanding of its expressive power, and their unique perception of its functions. Confucius held that music has the same significance as ritual systems do, and that both can play the role of maintaining social order. Music can purify people's minds and improve their spiritual levels. In ancient China, guqin was the favorite musical instrument of literati, and guqin , chess, calligraphy and painting embodied the life style of ancient literati, representing their special cultural quality. Se, a stringed musical instrument of Warring States PeriodThe pipe of Yi the Marquis of the State of ZengA 10-stringed zitherThe pottery Tao Xun 4. 战国瑟3. 曾侯乙排箫2. 十弦琴1. 灰陶埙1 2 3 4 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 191京剧 Peaking opera 京剧也叫“京戏”“国剧”，是中 国流行最广、影响最大、表演艺术最成 熟的一个剧种，代表了中国戏曲的发展水平，与中医、中国画一起，被称为“三大国粹”。 A Chinese opera form, Peaking opera is the most widely known, carries the greatest influence and is the most mature in performance art in China, representing the development level of Chinese operas. Together with traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese painting, it is called the "national quintessence of China." 京剧在形成过程中，吸收了多个地方戏曲的优点，同 时深受北京方言和风俗习惯的影响，至今已有 200 多年的 历史。京剧虽然诞生在北京，但并不是北京的地方戏，中国各地都有演出京剧的剧团。 In the course of its formation, Peaking opera has absorbed many strong points of local operas; meanwhile, it has been influenced by the local dialect and customs of Beijing. It has a history of over 200 years. Though Peaking opera came into being in the capital, it is not a local opera of Beijing. In fact, there are Peaking opera troupes in many regions of China. 唱、念、做、打是京剧的四种主要表演手段。唱，指 按照一定的曲调演唱。念，是带有音乐性的说话，用于剧 中角色的对话和独白。做，指动作和表情。打，是用舞蹈化的武术表演的搏斗。 Singing, recitation, acting and acrobatic fighting are four major performance methods of Peaking opera. Singing refers to the songs Farewell , My Concubine , a Peaking opera performance1. 京剧《霸王别姬》 小知识· Small Encyclopedia 四大名旦：20 世纪二三十 年代的民国时期，中国的京剧 艺术发展至鼎盛。这一时期，人才济济，流派纷呈。梅兰芳、程砚秋、尚小云、荀慧生被誉为“四大名旦”。他们的脱颖而出， 开创了京剧舞台上以 “旦”为主的格局。 Four Famous Dan Performers: In the 1920s, the art of Peaking opera reached its pinnacle. During this period, many talented performers and various genres emerged. In particular, Mei Lanfang, Cheng Yanqiu, Shang Xiaoyun and Xun Huisheng were reputed to be "Four Great Dan Performers." They ushered in an era in which Peaking opera stages were dominated by " dan" roles.1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 192performed to set tunes. Recitation refers to melodious monologues and dialogues among performers. Acting refers to the performance of specific bodily movements and facial expressions. Acrobatic fighting refers to choreographed martial art scenes. 京剧的行当①主要有“生、旦、净、丑”四种。“生” 是指男性角色；“旦”是京剧中女性的统称；“净”是京 剧中品貌或者性格上具有独特风格的男性角色，因面部化妆要用各种色彩和图案勾勒脸谱， 所以又俗称 “花脸” ； “丑”是幽默、滑稽的喜剧人物。 Types of roles① in Peaking opera can be basically classified into four: sheng , dan, jing and chou . Sheng refers to male roles, dan a general term for female roles in Peaking opera, and jing are male roles in Peaking opera with unique appearance or characters, also commonly called " hualian " (colorful face) because their facial makeup is made of various color and designs. Chou refers to a witty, humorous or cunning male. 京剧的戏装又叫行头。帝王将相等贵族穿绣有龙凤的 袍子。 “官服” 的前胸和后背各有一个绣着动物的方块图案。 一般平民的衣服叫“褶子”。“水袖”是戏衣的袖口处缝着的一块白绸子， 因为甩动起来像水的波纹， 所以叫水袖。水袖具有很强的表现功能， 紧张、 讨厌、 悲伤、 高兴等情绪，都可以通过舞动水袖表达出来。 For performance costumes in Peaking opera, emperors and kings wear robes embroidered with the designs of dragons and phoenixes; on the chest and back of an "official's costume," there is a square embroidered animal; and the costumes of commoners are called " zhezi. " "Shuixiu " are pieces of white silk sewed on the cuffs of performance costumes, and they are thus named because they resemble waves when they are thrust into the air. " Shuixiu " are strongly expressive, portraying emotions such as nervousness, distaste, sorrow and happiness through the swinging of shuixiu. “脸谱”是用鲜明的色彩、流畅的线条，勾画在戏曲 人物脸上的图案。这是中国戏曲化妆的特殊手段。京剧脸 谱主要用于“净”和“丑”两个行当。舞台脸谱能标志出人物的性格，具有辅助表演、展现褒贬的评说意味。以脸谱的基本色调为例：红色表示忠义勇猛；白色表示阴险狡小注解·Footnotes ① 行当：传统戏曲演员专 业分工的类别。 ① Types of roles: In traditional Chinese operas, roles are classified into different professional types. 白—奸 黄—恶 绿—莽 1 红—忠 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 193猾； 黑色表示直爽刚毅；紫色表示刚正稳重；黄色表示凶 暴 ；绿色表示鲁莽；蓝色表示勇猛阴险；金色表示神佛等。 Facial makeup includes the designs painted on Peaking opera performers with bright colors and smooth lines, using a special makeup method common to Chinese operas. Facial makeup in Peaking opera is mainly for the two roles of jing and chou . Makeup on the stage marks the characters of personae, aiding the performance while implying appraisement. Take basic colors of makeup as an example: Red indicates loyalty, courage and valor, white means treachery and slyness, black suggests forthrightness and fortitude, purple means uprightness and sedateness, yellow indicates fierceness and brutality, green reveals impertinence, blue represents valor and treachery, and gold stands for divinity, etc. 作为一种舞台艺术，京剧表演具有鲜明的程式性和虚 拟性。京剧的程式性体现在表演环节的各个方面，无论是 唱、 念、 做、 打， 还是与乐队的配合， 都有严格的程式要求，只有经过学习，才能够真正掌握。虚拟手段的广泛运用，不仅最大限度地突破了舞台的局限，也为京剧增添了许多艺术情趣。 比如演员手持一根鞭子， 就说明他在骑马 ； 低头，单手轻拭双眼下方，就表明角色在流泪；等等。 As a stage performance art, the performance of Peaking opera has formed established conventionality and mimicking patterns. The sign of conventionality is that each aspect of the performance —no matter whether it is singing, recitation, acting, acrobatic fighting, or the teamwork with the band —all comes with a strict stylized requirement, and a performer must be trained in order to grasp it. Meanwhile, the extensive use of mimicking methods has not only broken through the limitation of stages to the utmost, but added much artistic taste for Peaking opera. For instance, a whip in the hand signals one is riding on a horse, and lowering down the head and mopping below the eyes with one hand suggests that the character is shedding tears, etc. 京剧的经典剧目很多，如《霸王别姬》《白蛇传》《定 军山》《贵妃醉酒》《群英会》《借东风》等。 The repertoire of Peaking opera is plentiful, including Farewell , My Concubine , The Tale of the White Serpent , Mount Dingjun , Drunken Beauty , A Gathering of Heroes and Borrowing the East Wind .The makeup in Peaking opera A picture of Mei Lanfang and a still of his performance1. 京剧脸谱 2. 梅兰芳像及剧照 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 194地方戏 Local Chinese Opera 中国地域辽阔，民族众多，民风不同，各地方言不同， 因而形成了丰富多彩的地方戏。 中国的地方戏有 300 多种， 除京剧外， 影响较大的还有昆剧、 越剧、 黄梅戏、 评剧、 豫剧、粤剧等。 China is a vast country with many ethnic groups. People in different regions speak various dialects. As a result, a variety of local operas have been formed. There are more than 300 types of local operas. Apart from Peaking opera, the best known are kunju opera, yueju or Shaoxing opera, huangmei opera, pingju opera, Yu or Henan opera, and Yue or Guangdong opera. 明代中叶，昆剧形成于江苏昆山一带，曾在全国范围 内有过较大影响，对很多剧种都产生过深远影响，有“中 国戏曲之母”的美称。京剧的很多唱腔就是在昆剧的基础上发展起来的。昆剧产生在文化发达的江南地区，很多文人也参与了昆剧的改良。昆剧文字优美典雅，唱腔以缠绵婉转、清丽悠远为特色。伴奏乐器齐全，以笛子为主。代表剧目有《牡丹亭》《桃花扇》等。昆剧在 2001 年被联合国教科文组织评定为 “人类口头遗产和非物质遗产代表作” 。 Kunju was formed around Kunshan, Jiangsu in the mid -Ming Dynasty, and had been influential across the country. Having exerted profound influence over many other local Chinese operas, it is reputed to be the "mother of Chinese opera." Many Peaking opera tunes are developed on the basis of kunju . Kunju originated in the area south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, where the culture was well developed, and many of the literati had taken part in the reform and refinement of kunju . Featuring beautiful lyrics and touching, sweet and melodious tunes, it has a complete set of accompanying musical instruments, with flutes as its main feature. The representative items in its repertoire are the Peony Pavilion and the Fan with Peach Blossoms . A still of huangmei opera program Marrying a Fairy2. 黄梅戏《天仙配》剧照 A still of pingju opera program Liu Qiao'er (Xin Fengxia)1. 评剧《刘巧儿》剧照（主演新 凤 霞）1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 195Kunju was appraised among the "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" by UNESCO in 2001. 评剧形成于河北，流行于京、津和东北地区。评剧具 有语言通俗、唱腔活泼、生活气息浓郁的特点，擅长表现 现代生活。 著名演员有新凤霞等。 代表剧目有 《杨三姐告状》《花为媒》《刘巧儿》等。 Pingju opera originated in Hebei Province and is popular in Beijing, Tianjin and Northeast China. Pingju opera features popular language, lively tunes and lifelike stories, and accurately reflects the realities of today. The best -known performers include Xin Fengxia, and its representative plays are Yang Sanjie's Brings a Lawsuit , Flowers Play a Go -between , and Liu Qiao'er , etc. 越剧发源于浙江绍兴，流行于浙江、江苏、上海等地。 20 世纪 20 年代开始，全部由女演员演出。越剧唱腔委婉、 表演细腻。著名演员有袁雪芬、徐玉兰、王文娟等。代表剧目有《梁山伯与祝英台》《红楼梦》等。 Yueju or Shaoxing opera originated in Shaoxing of Zhejiang Province and is popular in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shanghai etc. In the 1920s, all roles of this opera began to be played by female performers. The songs of this opera are mild and pleasing to the ear, and the acting is meticulous. Renowned performers include Yuan Xuefen, Xu Yulan and Wang Wenjuan. Among its representative works are the Butterfly Lovers (Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai ), and A Dream of Red Mansions , etc. 黄梅戏是安徽的地方戏，也称黄 梅调，流行于湖北、江西、安徽等地。 黄梅戏载歌载舞，唱腔委婉动听，表演朴实优美，生活气息浓厚。著名演员有严凤英、王少舫、吴琼等。代表剧目有《天仙配》《牛郎织女》《女驸马》等。 Huangmei opera, also known as Huangmei Tunes, is a local opera of Anhui, and is popular in Hubei, Jiangxi, Anhui and elsewhere. This opera is characterized by dancing while singing. Its tunes are mild and 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 196pleasant. The acting movements are simple, but graceful. It is also very close to real life. Prominent performers include Yan Fengying, Wang Shaofang and Wu Qiong. The representative operas are Marrying a Fairy , Cowherd and Weaving Maid and Emperor's Female Son -in-Law, etc. 豫剧是河南的地方戏，流行于河南及邻近各省。豫剧 的声腔，或高亢活泼，或悲凉缠绵。著名演员有常香玉、 马金凤、牛得草等。代表剧目有《花木兰》 《穆桂英挂帅》《七品芝麻官》等。 Yu or Henan opera is the local opera of Henan Province, and is popular in Henan and neighboring provinces. Its tunes are sometimes high pitched, at other times mild and sorrowful. Well -known performers include Chang Xiangyu, Ma Jinfeng and Niu Decao. Noteworthy selections are Hua Mulan , Mu Guiying Takes Command and A Petty Official , etc. 粤剧是广东的地方戏，主要流行于广东、广西、福建 南部和港澳地区。 粤剧用广东话演唱， 形成了独特的风格。 著名演员有红线女、马师曾等。代表剧目有《搜书院》 《关汉卿》等。 Yue or Guangdong opera is a local opera form of Guangdong Province, and is mainly popular in Guangdong, Guangxi, southern Fujian, Hong Kong and Macao. It uses Cantonese dialect and has formed a unique style of singing. The best -known performers include Hongxiann ü and Ma Shizeng, with famous works such as Searching the Study , Guan Hanqing , etc. 1 2 A still of Yu opera program Hua Mulan (Xiaoxiangyu)1. 豫剧 《花木兰》 剧照 （主演小香玉） A still of kunju opera program the Alarmed Dream in Sightseeing in the Garden2. 昆剧《游园惊梦》剧照 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 197“曲艺”是各种说唱艺术的总称。它的主要艺术手段 是用伴有表演动作的说和唱来叙述故事。现在流行的曲艺 种类有 400 多个， 包括相声、 大鼓①、快 板②、弹 词③、双 簧④、 二人转⑤等。 Quyi is a general term for all kinds of talking and singing performances. Its major artistic method is to tell stories by talking and singing accompanied with performance motions. Presently, popular quyi consists of more than 400 types, including xiangsheng (comic dialogue), dagu ①, kuaiban ②, tanci ③, shuanghuang④ and errenzhuan⑤. 曲艺和戏曲的一人扮演一个角色的特点有所不同，它 常常是“一人多角”—— 在说唱故事过程中一人可模拟多 个角色， 并常常由演员自己带着乐器， 自弹自唱或自拉自唱。曲艺的表演要经常地 “进入” 人物， 摹拟人物的神态、 动作。俗语“装文装武我自己，好像一台大戏”，生动地描述了曲艺表演模拟性强的特点。曲艺的表演轻便简捷，不需要很多演员，也不需要很大的空间和很多的道具，一两个人就能演 （包括说、 唱） 一台戏。 曲艺的语言来自生活， 亲切、生动、生活气息浓厚。相声是最为人们喜闻乐见的曲艺形式之一。 Different from Chinese operas in which one performer plays one role, quyi often has one performer playing multiple roles —in the course of telling stories through speaking and singing, one performer can play several parts, and the performer often plays accompanying music instruments himself. In quyi performance, performers often imitate the expressions and motions of personae. Quyi performance is convenient and simple in form; it does not require many actors or actresses, nor too large a space or too many props —just one or two performers are enough to present the show. Quyi language comes from 曲艺 Quyi 小注解·Footnotes ① 大鼓：曲艺的一种。以 唱为主，说唱故事，用鼓、板、 三弦伴奏。 ①Dagu ：versified storytelling accompanied by beating of a drum and other instruments ② 快板：曲艺的一种。用 有韵律的语言讲故事，说时用 竹板伴奏，节奏较快。 ②Kuaiban ：talking to the beat of clappers ③ 弹词：曲艺的一种，流 行于中国南方各地。 有说有唱，用三弦伴奏， 或再加琵琶陪衬。 ③Tanci ：storytelling accompanied by sanxian fiddle or pipa fiddle ④ 双簧：曲艺的一种。一 个人表演动作，一个人藏在后面或说或唱，互相配合。 ④Shuanghuang ：one man acting in the front and another hidden behind him talking or singing ⑤ 二人转：曲艺的一种， 流行于中国东北地区。 用板胡、 唢呐等乐器伴奏，一般由两人边舞蹈边说唱故事。 ⑤Errenzhuan ：song-and- dance duel 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 198 daily colloquial use, and is thus genial and vivid. In particular, comic dialogue is one of the most popular forms of quyi. 现代相声产生于北京、 天津地区， 已有 100 多年的历史。 相声是一种笑的艺术，主要特点是通过语言对事物进行幽 默的叙说， 引人发笑。 它的表演手段主要有四种， 即说、 学、逗、唱，其中以说为主。说的内容大多是生活中的事情，也有的是根据民间笑话、 历史故事或语言文字游戏编写的。相声的笑料来自那些巧妙安排在相声中的 “包袱” 。 “包袱”是相声演员的行话 ⑥，意思是把笑料像包东西一样一件一件 地包在包袱里，到了一定的时候，突然抖出来，既出乎观众的意料，又合情合理，使观众忍不住大笑起来。 Comic dialogue of today originated in Beijing and Tianjin over a century ago. Comic dialogue is an art of amusement, and its major quality is making audiences laugh through humorous language. Its most important artistic method is talking, followed by imitation, teasing and singing. These comic dialogues most often ridicule the phenomena of daily life. 小注解·Footnotes ⑥ 行话：各行各业专用的 语言。 ⑥ Jargon：special words or expressions used by a particular profession or group that are difficult for others to understand 1 2 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 199Some are created by adapting folk jokes, tales of historical figures and events or word games. What makes the audience laugh is called baofu or "packages," which is a jargon ⑥ of those within the performance circle. As its name implies, jokes are like things wrapped in a package; when the time comes, they are suddenly presented in a way that defies audiences' expectations while also being reasonable, causing raucous laughter. 相声表演所用的道具非常简单，一张桌子、一把扇子 或一块手绢就可以了，或者干脆什么也不用。一个人说的 叫单口相声；两个人说的叫对口相声；三个人或多人合说的叫群口相声。对口相声最为常见，两个演员分别叫作“逗哏（ɡén） ”和“捧哏”。逗哏是在相声演出时主要叙述故 事情节的演员，他不断地说出笑料，是相声中的“主角”，捧哏与逗哏相互配合，互相烘托，尽力渲染喜剧效果。 The stage props for a xiangsheng performance are very simple: namely, a table and a fan or a handkerchief, or even no props are used. Xiangsheng performed by one person is called "dankou xiangsheng ," that by two persons "duikou xiangsheng ," and that by three or more people " qunkou xiangsheng ." The most commonly seen is the comic dialogue performed by two people, with one performer called " dougen " and the other " penggen ." The person who plays the part of dougen is the major performer who tells the story and constantly makes jokes; dougen and penggen set off each other through teamwork, trying hard to improve the comic effect. 著名相声演员有马三立、侯宝 林、马季、姜昆等。在一代一代相 声艺人的努力下，相声已成为雅俗共赏的全国性艺术形式。 The best -known comic dialogue performers include Ma Sanli, Hou Baolin, Ma Ji and Jiang Kun. With the concerted effort of generations of performers, comic dialogue has become a national entertainment beloved by those with both low and highbrow tastes.A tanci performance An errenzhuan performance The clapper talk show by Mr. Zhang Zhikuan 1. 弹词表演 2. 二人转表演 3. 张志宽先生快板表演 3Ma Ji and Liu Wei, famous comic dialogue actors4. 著名相声演员马季和刘伟 4 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 200Magic performance by Ding Shunbo from Shenzhen Balancing a stack of bowls on the head1 .深圳演员丁顺博表演的魔术 《变 花》 2. 杂技顶碗杂技指在特定 的环境中，运用各 种道具，以高难度和惊险的技巧为主要手段表演的人体技艺。包括用脚的蹬技、 用手的手技、用头顶的顶技等。广义的杂技还包括口技、魔术、驯兽、滑稽表演等。 Acrobatics refers to the skills of human bodies in action, which employs various props to perform difficult or dangerous stunts in a special environment. Some tricks are performed with feet, some with hands, and others with heads. In a broad sense, acrobatics also includes vocal mimicry, juggling, animal training and burlesque. 杂技艺术源于人们的劳动生活。每一个节目都是由一 系列特殊技巧组成的，这些节目的动作在生活中都可以找 到来源，如杂技节目《爬竿》的原型就是爬树、爬竹竿等。杂技中大量运用生活用具和劳动工具，如碗、盘、绳、鞭、竿 、桌、椅、伞、帽等等，这些平凡的东西，在中国杂技 艺人手里，变幻万千，显示了中国杂技与劳动生活的紧密联系。 Acrobatics comes from the everyday life of working people, wherein each program is composed of a series of special skills, and the actions in such programs have their source in daily life. For example, the acrobatic program Climbing a Pole is just an imitation of the climbing of trees or bamboo poles. Acrobats employ a large number of 杂技 Acrobatics 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 201utensils and laboring tools, such as bowls, plates, ropes, whips, poles, desks, chairs, umbrellas and hats. These ordinary things become magical in the hands of Chinese acrobatic performers, suggesting the close relationship between Chinese acrobatics and the labors of ordinary folks. 杂技与体育和一般的技巧表演有所不同，杂技演员通 常展现一些美妙的高难度的技巧，并将一些技巧组成一定 的程式，配上灯光、音乐、道具等，创造出美的艺术形象。杂技也与戏曲不同，它不表现戏剧情节，不创造典型形象，而主要通过技艺表演来引起观众的好奇心和审美快乐。 优秀杂技节目的共同特点是演员的形体动作健美有力，手法灵巧迅速，技术难度很高，如“蹬技”节目。蹬技多数是女演员表演，演员躺在特制的方台上，用双脚来蹬。至于所蹬物体，几乎包罗万象，从轻盈的绢质花伞、光滑的瓷质彩缸，到笨重的木制八仙桌子，乃至 100 多斤的成 人，都可以蹬得飞转如轮，只见影子不见 物象。 Different from sports and ordinary skill performance, performers of Chinese acrobatics usually show off wonderful and daring skills; meanwhile, they stylize certain movements and match such skills with lighting, music and props, thus creating beautiful artistic images. Acrobatics is also different from opera. It does not follow operatic plots, nor does it create scenes familiar to other forms of performance. It mainly employs the performance of skills to arouse the audience's curiosity and aesthetic pleasure. Excellent acrobatic programs share the same characteristics: The performers' bodies and movements appear lively and vigorous, their skills are deft and quick, and the stunts are very difficult. "Kicking skill" is one outstanding example. "Kicking" programs are usually performed by actresses. In the performance, the actress lies on a specially made square table, using her feet to rhythmically kick something. The things that a performer kicks can range from a light colorful silk umbrella and a 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 202 slippery colorful porcelain pot to a heavy traditional Chinese styled wooden table. In such a performance, an actress is even able to spin an adult more than one hundred jin in weight as fast as a turning wheel, appearing like a blur to viewers. “古彩戏法” 即现代所说的魔术。 演员的着装、道具和舞台布景都非常 简单，一件长袍，一条薄单，就能变出千奇百怪的东西，从酒席菜肴至活鱼活鸟，无奇不有。一个跟头能变出烈火燃烧的铜盆，再一个跟头又取出硕大无比、有鱼有水的鱼缸，显示出中国传统魔术出神入化的技巧。 Ancient conjuring tricks are comparable to today's magic, and the performers' costumes, props and stage background are all very simple. With a piece of long robe or a thin sheet, the performer can produce a variety of things, ranging from cuisine to living fish and birds. He can produce a copper basin with burning fire through a somersault, and a huge pot containing water and fish after another somersault. All these show the incredible skills of traditional Chinese magic performance. 口技是中国杂技节目中很有特色的一个种类。口技演 员能够模仿生活中的各种声音， 如鸟兽的叫声、 孩子的哭声、 风雨声、枪炮声、各种乐器声等，十分吸引人。 Vocal mimicry is another unique form of Chinese acrobatic programs, in which the actor reproduces a wide variety of sounds such as bird's chirp, a child's wailing, wind and rain, gunfire, and all kinds of musical instruments. It is most appealing to the audience. 现在，中国各地几乎都有杂技团，中国著名的杂技之 乡河北吴桥，每年都要举办国际杂技节。 Today, there are acrobatic troupes almost everywhere in China. Wuqiao of Hebei Province, renowned home of acrobatics, holds an annual international acrobatic festival.An acrobatic performance of the piling of human bodies1. 杂技叠罗汉1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 203木偶是由演员在幕后操纵木质玩偶进行表演的戏剧形 式，在中国古代又称傀儡 （kuǐlěi） 戏。根据木偶的结构 和演员操纵方式等的不同，可分为提线木偶、托棍木偶、 手套木偶等。 Puppet shows are an operatic form in which performers stand behind curtains and pull wires on wooden puppets to make them move. In accordance with the structure of puppets and the manipulation methods of performers, it can be divided into wire -hanging puppet show, stick -supporting puppet and glove puppet show. 提线木偶是在木偶的重要关节部位如头、背、手臂、 手掌等地方系上细线，演员拉动细线以操纵木偶；托棍木 偶是在木偶的头部及双手部位各装操纵杆，头部为主杆，双手为侧杆。表演时演员手持杆子，举起木偶来做出各种动作；手套木偶的脖子下面缝有布袋以连接四肢，演员把手伸入布内袋相互协调，操纵木偶做各种动作。Leather-silhouette Show and Puppet Show皮影和木偶 The cutting of leather-silhouette1. 雕刻皮影 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 204In a wire -hanging puppet show, threads are tied onto the important joint parts of a puppet, such as the head, the back, the arms and the palms, and a performer manipulates the puppet by pulling the thread. For the stick -supporting puppet, manipulating sticks are installed on a puppet's head and hands, with the stick at the head as the major one, and those on the hands as auxiliary ones. In a performance, the performers hold the sticks with their hands, raising the puppets to control their various motions. And for glove puppets, a cloth bag is sewed below the neck of a puppet to connect its limbs, and a performer puts his hand into the bag to control the puppet for different actions. 中国木偶历史悠久。三国时已有木偶杂技表演，隋朝 开始用木偶表演故事，20 世纪后，木偶戏的演出形式逐渐 丰富，如演员由幕后转到前台，真人与木偶同台演出等。木偶戏的剧目也不断增加。30 年代后，木偶戏进入电影和电视。 The art of puppetry has a long history in China. The performance of puppet acrobatics can date back to the Three Kingdoms Period, and puppet shows began to be used to present stories in the Sui Dynasty. Since the 20th century, puppet shows have evolved to include an increasing number of performance types, with one example being that the performers enter the stage from behind the curtain, with real persons and puppets performing together on the same stage. The repertoire of puppet shows is also on the rise. After the 1930s, puppet shows began to be adapted for films and TV shows. “皮影”是对皮影戏和皮影戏人物（包括道具场景制 品）的通用称呼。顾名思义，皮影是以皮革为原料制成的， 出于坚固性和透明性的考虑，又以驴皮和牛皮最好，所以也叫驴皮影。在皮革上刻好图形后，再用红、黄、绿、黑等透明质地的颜料上色。这些特殊的材质和颜料，使得皮影人物和道具在后背光的照射下，投影到布幕上的影子显得艳丽而晶莹剔透。 Leather-silhouette figures Manipulating leather-silhouette figures behind the curtain1. 皮影人物 2. 在幕后操纵皮影 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 205小知识·Small Encyclopedia 关于皮影戏的起源：据记 载，汉武帝的妃子李夫人去世 后，他非常思念。有一个会点法术的人对他说，自己能够招魂。汉武帝就照他说的，在房间设了一个帐子，夜里点起灯烛， 自己则待在另一个帐子里，于是远远地看见李夫人走过来，坐在那边的帐子里，但是又不能走近细看。武帝更加悲伤，还为此作了一首诗。这里记录了一个人使用法术，来缓解汉武帝对妃子的思念的故事。这个法术的原理与现代皮影表演的原理很相似，一般认为是关于皮影的最早记载。 Leather-silhouette performance has an interesting origin. According to records, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty missed Lady Li, one of his concubines, after her death. A magician told the emperor that he was able to evoke souls. Emperor Wudi followed his instruction to set up a tent in the room and light candles at night, and then stay in another tent. Then, the emperor in distance saw Lady Li step over and sit in the tent on the other side, but unable to have a good look. The emperor became even more forlorn, and even wrote a poem about the event. Here, it is a story telling how a man made use of magic to relieve Emperor Wudi's yearning for his dead concubine. This magic had a similar principle as the performance of modern leather-silhouette shows, and is widely thought to be the earliest record of leather-silhouette performance.Leather -silhouette is a general term both for leather -silhouette shows and characters who appear in such shows (including related props and other stage objects). As its name shows, leather -silhouette is made of leather; for the sake of durability and transparency, the best raw material is donkey and ox skins, therefore, it is also known as "donkey leather silhouette." Such leather is painted with transparent red, yellow, green and black colors after it is cut into certain designs. These special materials and colors make the shadow of leather figures and props beautiful and transparent when it is cast onto a backlit cloth screen. 皮影人物也被划分成生、旦、净、丑等类别。每个 人物都由头、上身、下身和双手等几部分连缀组成。表 演者通过控制人物脖颈处和双手处的杆子来使人物做出各种动作。 Leather -silhouette figures are also divided into the roles of sheng , dan, jing and chou . Each figure is composed of the head, the upper body, the lower body and the hands, which are tied together. Performers control sticks at the neck and hands of the figure to make a range of expressive motions. 皮影是一门综合性的民间艺术，包括影人和道具的雕 刻、染色，演出时的舞动影人、演唱、配乐，等。流传区 域非常广泛，曾经是民间重要的娱乐形式。受各地风俗民情的影响，皮影戏在皮影雕刻、唱腔以及演出方式上有各自的风格，从而形成不同的地方特色。比较有名的是陕西皮影、河北皮影、浙江皮影等。 Leather -silhouette shows are a comprehensive folk art, involving the cutting of leather figures and props, dyeing, the manipulation of such figures in performance, singing and accompanying music, etc. It is extensively spread throughout China, and was once a significant entertainment form for ordinary people. Influenced by local customs, leather - silhouette shows vary from one place to another in the cutting of leather figures, vocal tunes and performance patterns, therefore, they have formed different genres, with the most famous forms on leather -silhouette originating in Shaanxi, Hebei and Zhejiang. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 206Martial Arts武术 武术是中国传统的体育项目，以踢、打、摔、拿、击、 刺等技击动作为主要内容，通过徒手或借助器械的身体运 动表现攻防格斗的能力。 Martial arts are a traditional sports feature of China. Mainly consisting of fighting motions such as kicking, hitting, throwing, wrestling, striking and jabbing, they display fighting ability through the motions of bodies using bare hands or weapons. 远古时候， 人们通过与野兽搏斗和参加战争， 获得了格斗和搏杀的技能，使用的器械也不断进 化，形成了刀、枪、剑、戟等传统兵器，使用这些兵器的方法就是所谓的“十八般武艺”。 In ancient times, people learned how to fight and kill through hunting or tribal clashes. Through long years of evolvement, tools used for hunting or fighting gradually developed into weaponry like the knife, spear, sword, cudgel, etc. And the methods to use such weapons are known as the "eighteen kinds of martial arts."Shaolin martial arts Shadow boxing master Chen Quanzhong and his disciples1. 少林功夫 2. 太极拳大师陈全忠及其弟子 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 207过去， 武术分类有以地区划分的， 有以姓氏家族划分的， 也有按技术特点划分的。 现代一般按内容分为五类：拳术、 器械、对练、对抗项目、集体项目。拳术是武术的基础，包括太极拳 ①等。器械类包括刀术、剑术、棍术、枪术等。 对练类包括徒手对练、器械对练、徒手与器械对练等。对抗项目包括徒手搏击等。集体项目是集体表演的武术。 In the past, martial arts were divided in reference to regions, family names or fighting characteristics. Modern martial arts are usually classified into five types: boxing, fighting with weaponry, one -on- one exercises, sparring, and collective practice. Boxing, including Taiji boxing① (shadowboxing), is the basis of martial arts. Fighting with weaponry can be divided into fighting with a knife, sword, cudgel and spear, etc. One -on-one exercises include fighting with fists, weapons and fists -to-weapon fights, etc. Sparring refers to a fight between two practitioners. Collective practice refers to martial arts exercises performed by a group of people. 总体来说， 武术要求动作连贯， 快速多变， 节奏鲜明， 身、 手、 眼、 步和精神、 气力高度协调。 学习武术不仅能增强体质， 掌握攻防格斗的技能，还能培养勇敢、机智、敏捷等优良性格。 In general, martial arts require continuous movements, quickness, adaptability, dexterity, clear -cut rhythm, and the harmonious coordination of the body, hands, eyes, steps, mood, breathing and strength, etc. Practicing martial arts can not only help one keep fit 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 小注解·Footnotes少林武术：少林寺初建于 5 世纪末，位于河南嵩山。曾有 多位高僧在这里修行、传播佛法。少林寺在中国佛教界享有崇高地位。少林武术是佛教文化和少林文化的组成部分。少林武术主动吸收各地各流派武术的精华，加上嵩山四通八达的地理位置，使少林寺实际上成了中原大地乃至南北武艺交流荟萃的一个集散地，对中国武术，特别是民间武术产生了重要影响。 Shaolin martial arts: The Shaolin Temple was originally built at the end of the 5th century, and is located in Mount Songshan, Henan Province. Many prominent Buddhist monks practiced and promoted Buddhism there, and the Shaolin Temple has a high position in the Chinese Buddhist community. Martial arts are a part of both Shaolin culture and Buddhist culture. Shaolin martial arts proactively absorb the quintessence of martial arts from all places; moreover, Mount Songshan is at a hub of convenient transportation, making it a convenient site for the exchange and collection of martial arts both in mid-China as well as north and south China. It has exerted an important influence over Chinese martial arts, especially over Chinese folk martial arts. ① 太极拳：明代创立，后 不断发展，形成众多流派。强 调静心用意，呼吸自然，动作柔和缓慢，连贯协调。太极拳既可用于技击， 又可健身养性。目前，太极拳运动不仅遍及全中国，欧美、东南亚、日本等国也成立了太极拳协会。 ①Taiji boxing: Created in the Ming Dynasty, it has since been through a process of constant refinement and formed many branches. Shadowboxing lays an emphasis on internal calmness, a specially directed mind, natural breath, and gentle, slow and continuous motions. Shadowboxing can be used both for fighting and fitness building. Shadowboxing has now spread not only across China, but also to Europe, America, Southeast Asia and Japan where related societies have been established.2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 208and grasp the skills of fighting, but develop good characteristics such as courage, cleverness and promptness. 武术还吸取了中 国传统哲学及养生的 思想内涵，既注重身体的训练，也注重精神的培养，演练风格 上要求神形兼备。武术本身也兼有健身养性、休闲娱乐和艺术表演的功能。 Martial arts have also absorbed some contents of traditional Chinese philosophy and training. They emphasize both physical exercise and spiritual cultivation, stressing both form and meaning for the style of exercise. Martial arts themselves also have the function of health improvement, entertainment and artistic performance. 中国民间的武术活动十分活跃，历代出现了许多武术 名家，形成了河南少林寺、河北沧州等武术基地。国家还 设有专门机构开展武术运动。武术在中国是正式的比赛项目。1990 年第 11 届亚运会将武术列为竞赛项目，并举行了首次比赛。中国武术已成为国际性的体育竞技项目。 Folk martial arts flourish in China, and many famous martial art masters emerge generation after generation, thus forming martial art bases such as the Shaolin Temple in Henan and Cangzhou in Hebei. The government establishes special institutions to provide training in martial arts, and martial arts are listed as a formal sport. The 11th Asian Games 1990 listed martial arts as a contest category, and held a competition for the first time. Now, martial arts have become an international sport. Sword practiceWeapons in ancient China 2. 舞剑1. 古代兵器 2 1 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 209象棋和围棋 Xiangqi (Chinese Chess) and Weiqi (Go) 象棋起源于中国，在 2,000 多年前的战国时代， 已经有“象棋”这个名称。但那时的象棋与现在有很大差别。在当时社会的上层中，已经流行下棋了。 Xiangqi (Chinese chess) originated in China, and the name " xiangqi " dates back to the Warring States Period more than 2,000 years ago, although at that time xiangqi was quite different from today. Since that early time it has been a popular game among the high rank of society. 棋盘中间没有划通直线的地方叫作“河界”，又名“楚 河汉界”。这个名称，可能是来自楚汉相争时期韩信制作 象棋的传说。据说，韩信带兵，在休整时作象棋来教导士兵打仗的道理。目前可知的有河界的象棋出现在北宋，没有河界的象棋属于前期的一种。 In the middle of a chessboard there is a border separating the two sides, which is called the "River -Border" or the "Chuhe River and Han Border." This name may stem from the legend that Chinese chess was invented by Han Xin, a strategist living in the period when Chu and Han were at war against each other. It is said that Han Xin invented xiangqi to teach his men the art of war during their leisure time. The xiangqi with the "River -Border" known today first appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty, and the one without the River -Border belonged to its predecessor. 象棋盘由 9 道直线和 10 道横线交叉组成。棋盘上共有 90 个交叉点，棋子就摆在这些交叉点上。划有斜交叉线的 The Chinese Chess is one of the quintessence of China1. 象棋是中国国粹之一1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 210地方叫作“九宫”。棋子共 有 32 个，分为黑、红两组，下棋的双方各用一组，每组各有一帅（将）、两士、两相（象）、两马、两车、两炮、五兵（卒）。两人对局时，按照规定的位置将各自的棋子摆好，红方先走，然后轮流下子。各种棋子走法有具体的规定， 如 马走日字，相（象）走田字，车可以“横冲直撞”，兵（卒）只可前行 ，等。 On the chessboard of xiangqi , 9 parallel vertical and 10 parallel horizontal lines intersect with each other, forming 90 intersections, where the chess pieces of xiangqi are placed. The places with slant lines at the points are called "jiu gong." There are altogether 32 chess pieces, which are divided into two groups. Characters carved on the pieces are painted red or black to represent the two sides. Each side has a "marshal" or a "general," two "guards," two "elephants," two "horses," two "chariots," two "cannons" and five "soldiers." At the start of a match, all pieces must be placed in fixed positions, and the red side moves first. Each piece has its unique move, for example, a "horse" moves diagonally from one position to another, a move which is traditionally described as being like the Chinese character 日 (ri in pinyin ), a "elephant" may move orthogonally and is limited to nine positions in the middle part at the bottom, which forms a pattern of the Chinese character 田 (tian in pinyin ), a chariot can move any distance orthogonally so long it does not jump over intervening pieces, and a "soldier" can move forward only. 一方的棋子攻击对方的将（帅），并能在下一着把它 吃掉时，称为“将军”，或简称“将”。被“将军”的一 方必须立即采取有效办法以扭转局面， 否则就算被 “将死” 。轮到走棋的一方，将（帅）虽然没有被对方“将军”，但被困在一个位置上无路可走，而己方其他棋子也都不能走 1 2 艺术体育篇 Arts and Sports 211动时，就算被“困毙”。“将死”或“困毙”对方将（帅） 者为胜。不分胜负为和棋。 When the "general" or "marshal" of one side is checked and might be eaten off in next move, it is called " jiangjun " or simply "jiang." When the side that is checked finds no way to save himself, he has been checkmated. In another case, one side finds no way to move his "general" or "marshal" although he is not checked by the other side, and nor can he move any remaining chessmen, then he has also lost. Sometimes no side wins, ending the game in a stalemate. 围棋起源于中国，它比象棋出现得更早，至少已经有 2,500 多年的历史，是世界上最古老的棋类。在古代，帝王 将相和平民百姓都喜爱这种棋艺。围棋的棋盘由纵横的 19条交叉线组成，构成 361 个交叉点，棋子就下在这些交叉点上。围棋棋子分黑白两色，各有 180 枚。围棋对弈，千变万化，紧张激烈。双方动用各种技术、战术攻击对方，非常富有战斗性。 由于围棋奥妙无穷， 古人曾经夸张地说，只有神仙才能发明它。唐代有一位著名的棋手王积薪，棋艺极其高超，因而传说他曾经受到神仙的指点。 Weiqi (go) originated in China. It appeared earlier than Chinese chess, and could date back at least 2,500 years. Go is the earliest form of chess in the world. In ancient days, it was a favorite game both of rulers and ordinary people. The board is marked with 19 parallel horizontal lines and 19 parallel vertical lines, forming 361 intersections upon which stones are placed. Each of the two sides, one with black stones and the other with white stones, possesses 180 of them. It is an intense and ever -changing game. Players must resort to a variety of tactics in order to defeat their opponent. Tactics used in the game are so variable and complex that ancient Chinese said in an exaggerated manner that the inventors of go must have been deities. In the Tang Dynasty, there was a famous player named Wang Jixin, whose skill in playing go was extraordinary to such a degree that it was said he had once been instructed by a deity.Chinese Chess A weiqi boardThe playing of xiangqi 2. 中国象棋 3. 围棋1. 象棋对弈 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 212围棋是一种策略性游戏。围棋的规则十分简单，却拥 有十分广阔的落子空间，使得围棋变化多端，比其他棋类 复杂深奥，这就是围棋的魅力所在。下围棋对人脑的智力开发很有帮助，可增强一个人的计算能力、创造能力、思维能力、判断能力，也能提高人的注意力和控制力。下围棋对少年儿童的智力发展能起到积极作用，使他们更好地分析事物。 Weiqi is a strategic game. With simple rules and enormous possibilities, it features the myriads of changes, more complicated and profound than other styles of chess. That is where the charm of weiqi lies. The playing of weiqi is greatly helpful in improving one's brain power, increasing his calculation skills, as well as the ability in creation, thinking and judgment. Also, it helps develop one's willpower and composure. The playing of weiqi can play a positive role in children's intelligence development and enhance their analytical ability. 隋唐时期，围棋传到日本，19 世纪又传到欧洲。现在， 世界上已有很多国家和地区开展了围棋运动， 其中以中国、 日本、韩国的水平最高。 Go was introduced into Japan during the Sui (581 -618 AD) and Tang (618 -907 AD) Dynasties and into Europe in the 19th century. Today, this game is played in many countries and regions, and players from China, Japan and South Korea are of the highest skill in the world. A Scene of Playing of Chess with Two Screens , a painting by Zhou Wenju1. 周文矩《重屏会棋图》 1 建筑篇 Architecture 213 建筑篇 Architecture 湖北黄鹤楼 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 214中国古代建筑是世界 上最古老的建筑体系之 一，3,000 年前已形成以木构架为主要结构，以封闭的院落为基本布局的独特风格， 并对周边如日本、东南亚及朝鲜半岛的建筑产生了深远的影响。 Ancient Chinese architecture is one of the oldest architectural systems in the world; 3,000 years ago, it had developed its unique style of using wooden -framed structure and closed yards as basic layouts, and exerted profound influence on the architecture surrounding China, such as that in Japan, Southeast Asia and the Korean Peninsula. 传统建筑以木质材料为主，由立柱、梁（架在墙上或 柱子上支撑房顶的横木）等主要部件组成。各部件之间采 用一种凹凸处理的接合方式。凸出部分叫榫 （sǔn） ，凹进 部分叫卯 （mǎo） ，榫卯相插，构成富有弹性的框架，这样 的建筑具有较强的抗震性。 Traditional Chinese architecture mainly employs wooden materials, consisting of such major components as pillars and girders (horizontal wood placed on walls or pillars to support the roof ). All parts are connected through tenons and mortises, thus forming a flexible frame which is quite earthquake -resistant. 与木构架房屋相适应，中国古代建筑形成了一些重要 的特征：一是高于地面的台基。二是伸出的大屋檐。三是概述 Introduction 1. 北京故宫 The imperial Palace, Beijing1 建筑篇 Architecture 215屋面凹曲，屋角上翘。这样的结构使得雨水从屋顶流下时会被排得更远，这基本都是出 于木构架房屋特别需要防潮防雨淋的考虑。此外，多油漆彩画装饰也是中国传统建筑的显著特征，而油彩除了防潮防雨，还可防止木质建材腐朽、被蛀，并起到装饰作用。雕塑艺术也常常被大量用在传统建筑中，如放在大门前的石狮子，雕刻在屋顶、梁、柱上的神佛故事、飞禽走兽、吉祥纹样等。 Corresponding to wood -structure houses, the architecture of ancient China had formed some other important characteristics. The first was the groundwork whose top was above the ground; the second was large -sized protruding eaves; and the third was concaving roofs and raised corners. Such a structure enables the rain to be discharged farther away when it flows down from the roof, especially because wood -structure houses require extra consideration to prevent dampness and water damage. In addition, the abundance of colorful decorations with oil paint is another remarkable trait of traditional Chinese architecture. Oil paint, in addition to playing a decorative role, can not only prevent dampness and resist rain, but also prevent wooden building materials from being decayed or moth -eaten. Carving and molding arts are also extensively used in traditional architecture; for example, stone lions in front of a gate, and religious stories, birds, animals and auspicious designs carved on ceilings, girders and pillars. 中国古代建筑主要采取封闭式院落的平面布局。它以一条中轴线为中心，将主要建 筑前后依次排列在这条轴线上，而将次要及附属建筑对称地排列在轴线的左右两侧和前 后方。四周用回廊和院墙封闭，使其成为正方或长方的院落。中国古代建筑的这种院落式布局，具有很强的封闭性，并且体现出居住者的身份等级，很适合传统宗法和礼教制度的要求，这也是这种建筑布局能长期保持不变的重要因素之一。 The architecture of ancient China mainly adopts the plane layout of closed yards. Such a layout takes an axis as the center, ranging major structures on the axis in sequence, and arranging annexes symmetrically on the left and right sides and front and back of the axis. All these constructions are encircled by cloisters and yard walls, and a square or quadrate yard is thus formed. Such a yard layout of ancient Chinese architecture has a strong enclosure and shows the rank and status of dwellers, thus meeting the requirement of traditional hierarchical and Confucian systems very well. This is one of the important reasons why such architectural layout can last for such a long time. 中国传统的建筑类型主要有城池、 宫殿、 寺观、 陵墓、 民居、 园林、 桥梁、 亭台楼阁等。 Traditional Chinese architectural types mainly include cities and towns, palaces, temples, mausoleums, civil dwellings, gardens, bridges, pavilions, platforms and so on. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 216宫殿建筑 The Imperial Palace 宫殿是中国古代建筑中最豪华、艺术价值 最高的一种类型。因为是帝王居住和处理政务 的专用场所， 宫殿的建造特别追求高大、 雄伟、壮丽，以此显示帝王至高无上的地位和权威。 The imperial palace was the most luxurious type of traditional Chinese architecture with the highest artistic value. Because it was designed exclusively for the emperor to live and deal with state affairs, it pursued grandeur and magnificence in construction, thus showing the supreme status and authority of the emperor. 北京故宫是明清两代皇帝的皇宫，距今已 有近 600 年的历史，占地 72 万多平方米，有 房屋 9,000 多间，是中国现存最大、最完整的古建筑群，也是现存最宏伟、变化最丰富的明清院落组合的最典型杰作。故宫建筑群有明显的中轴线，主要建筑都位于这条中轴线上。结构分为两大部分，前面是皇帝召见大臣处理政务的地方，后面则是皇帝和家人居住生活的地方。前部主体建筑是三大殿，即太和殿、中和殿和保和殿。三大殿共同建造在一个高 7 米的 “工” 字形基座上， 基座全部用白色大理石砌成， 分上中下三层。三大殿前面是一片非常开阔的广场，是故宫内最大的开阔地。站在这里仰望三大殿中最前方的太和殿，可以感到蓝天白云衬托下，那立在三层白色基座上的宫殿无比庄严和神圣，这正是宫殿的设计者所追求的效果。后面的主体建筑是乾清宫、交泰 1 2 3 建筑篇 Architecture 217殿、 坤宁宫。 这里建筑较为密集， 院落交错， 装饰豪华优雅， 花园里连道路都用五色石子拼出美丽的图案。这与前面庄严雄伟的风格形成鲜明对比， 适应了帝后日常生活的需要。 The Imperial Palace in Beijing was the imperial palace of emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and has a history of nearly 600 years. Covering a land more than 720,000 square meters and consisting of more than 9,000 rooms, it is the largest and most complete ancient architectural complex of China, and the most quintessential masterpiece of the grandest Ming - and Qing -styled courtyard complex with the most abundance of changes in existence. The Imperial Palace architectural complex has an obvious axis, upon which all major constructions lie. Structurally, the Imperial Palace is divided into two parts in general: The outer court was the place where the emperor gave audience and handled state affairs, and the inner court was the living quarters for the emperors and their families. The major constructions in the front are three major halls, namely the Hall of Great Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The three major halls are built on the same base, which is seven meters high and in the shape of a supine " 工 ." The whole base is built with white marble, and can be divided into the three layers of the upper, the middle and the lower. Before the three major halls there is an open square, it is the largest open plot within the Imperial Palace. Looking up from this spot at the Hall of Great Harmony, which is in the front, one can feel that the three halls on the three -layered white base are incomparably sublime and sacred under the blue sky and white clouds, and that is just the effect that the architects of the palace had pursued. In contrast, major constructions in the rear are the Qianqing Palace, the Jiaotai Palace and the Kunning Palace. Here various constructions are located in dense clusters, courtyards intersect and connect with each other, decorations are luxurious and graceful, and in the gardens even the paths are beautiful designs with five -colored stones. This contrasts with the style of stateliness and grandeur in the front, meeting the needs of the emperor and the empress in daily life. 宫殿与普通住宅在规模、 形制乃至颜色、 装饰上都有明显的差别。宫殿内部建筑也有 严格的等级规定，比如屋顶上用来装饰的小动物（吻兽），数量多少有指示等级的作用，一般为单数，最多 9 个。但民间俗称的“金銮（luán） 殿”，即常常举行盛大典礼的太 和殿，屋顶上的吻兽破例有 10 个。The Wenshou of the Hall of Great Harmony, the Imperial Palace4. 故宫太和殿屋脊上的吻兽 41. 太和殿 2. 中和殿 3. 保和殿The Taihe Hall The Zhonghe Hall The Baohe Hall 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 218Imperial palaces are markedly different from the houses of ordinary officials and the populace in size, style, color and decoration, and buildings in an imperial palace follow a strict regulation of rankings as well. For example, the amount of small decorative animals present on the roof indicates ranking; usually it is odd -numbered and the animals amount up to nine at the most, but on the roof of the Hall of Great Harmony, where grand ceremonies were held, such animals exceptionally add up to ten. 故宫建筑的颜色也很醒目。金黄色琉璃瓦的屋顶，朱 红的木质廊柱，高大宽阔的汉白玉台基，加上无处不在的 龙凤、云海等纹样的雕饰，辉煌绚丽，充分显示出堂皇浩大的帝王气派。 The constructions of the Imperial Palace also bear striking colors. Their splendid roofs with golden glazed tiles, vermilion wooden corridor pillars, lofty and broad white marble bases, as well as the decorative carving of dragons, phoenixes and clouds that can be found everywhere, fully showing the grandeur of the emperor. 沈阳故宫又称奉天行宫，是入关前清朝皇帝 的宫殿， 占地 6 万多平方米。 沈阳故宫在建筑布局、 彩画、雕刻等方面都有浓厚的东北地方风格。 The Shenyang Imperial Palace, also known as Fengtian Temporary Imperial Palace, was the imperial palace of the emperors of the Qing Dynasty before they entered the Shanhai Pass. It covers an area over 60,000 square meters, and shows a strong local style of Northeast China in architectural layout, colorful painting and carving decoration. 西藏的布达拉宫既是 一座寺庙，又是一座具有 政权特色的宫殿，是古代西藏地区政教合一的产物。 The Potala Palace in Tibet is both a Buddhist temple and a palace with the traits of a government. It is a historical result of the merging of religious and secular rule in Tibet. The imperial Palace, Shenyang Potala Palace1. 沈阳故宫 2. 西藏布达拉宫 1 2 建筑篇 Architecture 219Religious and Sacrificial Constructions宗教和祭祀建筑 中国是一个多种宗教和鬼神信仰并 存的国家。除了本土的道教、各种神仙 和祖先崇拜， 还有外来的佛教、 伊斯兰教、基督教等。宗教祭祀建筑在中国现存的古建筑中占据了很大的比重，除基督教堂和清真寺外，这些建筑无论大小，都具有中国传统建筑的典型风格，即以木结构殿堂楼阁为主体，中轴线突出，左右对称，主次分明，有的还有前后庭院。 China is a country where multiple religions and the beliefs in ghosts and spirits co -exist. Apart from the indigenous Daoism, belief in various gods and immortals, and the ancestral worship, there are Buddhism, Islam and Christianity introduced into China from foreign lands. Religious and sacred constructions hold a large proportion among the surviving ancient structures of China. Except for Christian churches and mosques, most constructions follow the typical style of traditional The Nanchan Temple in Mount Wutai1. 五台山南禅寺1 2 The Temple of Chen Family in Guangzhou2. 广州陈家祠 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 220Chinese architecture regardless of their size; that is, main buildings are wood -structured constructions built along the central axis with auxiliary buildings placed symmetrically on both sides, and some complexes have front and rear courtyards. 佛教建筑主要有寺、塔、窟三种。 佛寺建筑源于印度，早期多为“塔寺结 构”，即在寺院中心修建大塔。晋唐以后转变为以殿堂为中心的寺院布局，一般由外至内主体建筑依次为山门殿、天王殿、大雄宝殿、观音殿、藏经楼等，两侧是一些次要的殿堂和僧人的生活区。由于教派和民族、地区等的不同，佛寺建筑在造型风格上也有差别。著名佛寺有山西五台山南禅寺、西藏布达拉宫、青海塔尔寺、北京雍和宫等。石窟寺是古代佛教徒在山崖间开凿的寺庙。中国的石窟寺建造兴盛于五至八世纪。甘肃敦煌的莫高窟、山西大同的云冈石窟和河南洛阳的龙门石窟是中国最著名的石窟寺，石窟建筑以及内部的雕塑和壁画都非常精美。 Buddhist constructions generally fall in three categories: temples, pagodas and grottoes. Buddhist temple architecture originated from India. In its early stage, Buddhist architecture mainly followed the style of "pagoda -temple structures," that is, big pagodas were built at the center of a temple. After the Jin and Tang Dynasties, it was replaced with the temple layout that instead features halls at the center. Usually, the major constructions from outer to inner are in sequence the Entrance Hall, the Hall of Heavenly Kings, the Hall of the Mahavira, the Hall of Guanyin, the scripture housing building and so on. Aside from those halls, there are the secondary halls and living quarters of monks. Due to the differences of sects, nationality and regions, Buddhist constructions differ architecturally. Famous Buddhist temples include the Nanchan Temple in Mount Wutai, Shanxi, the Potala Palace in Tibet, the Kumbum Monastery in Qinghai and the Yonghe Palace in Beijing. Grottoes are Buddhist temples that ancient Buddhists dug in 1 2 建筑篇 Architecture 221cliffs, which prospered in China from the 5th to 8th centuries. The most famous Buddhist grotto temples in China are the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, Gansu, the Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi and the Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Henan. These grotto constructions and the sculptures and murals inside are all very exquisite and beautiful. 道教建筑称为 “宫” 或 “观” 。 一般由供奉神灵的殿堂、 讲经诵经的场所和居住处所等几部分构成，并采取中轴线 布局以及宫殿式的建筑形式。如北京白云观就有明确的中轴线， 主要殿堂都坐落在中路， 供奉道教中地位较高的神。东西两路也有对称的建筑，供奉地位相对较低的神仙。著名的宫观建筑还有山西芮城永乐宫、四川成都青羊宫等。 Taoist structures are called gong (palace) or guan (temple). Normally, they are composed of the halls enshrining spirits, the sites meant to interpret and chant scriptures and the residential quarter. Such buildings are arranged along the axis and imitate the architectural style of imperial palaces. For example, the White Cloud Temple in Beijing has a clear axis, with its major halls located along the middle route to enshrine the gods of higher positions in Taoism. In the western and eastern routes there are symmetrical buildings, where immortals of relatively lower positions are enshrined. Other renowned Taoist constructions include the Yongle Palace in Ruicheng, Shanxi and the Qingyang Palace in Chengdu, Sichuan. 天坛、地坛、土地庙等是祭祀天地神灵的场所。遍布 全国的文庙（祭祀孔子）、武庙（祭祀关羽）及其他名人 庙祠和家族祠堂则表达了中国人崇敬祖先、尊重德行高尚人士的传统心理。 The Temple of Heaven, the Temple of Earth, the Temple of Local God of the Land and others are the places to worship the Heavens, the Earth and other gods respectively. The Temple of Confucius (where Confucius is worshipped), the Temple of Martial God (where Guan Yu is worshipped), temples in the name of other famous people and temples of families all over China show the Chinese people's traditional cultural mentality of respecting both their ancestors and people of sublime virtues.The Temple of Confucius The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, Beijing1. 孔庙 3. 北京天坛祈年殿 3 The White Cloud Temple2. 白云观 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 222相传释迦牟尼死后，他的弟子焚化了他的遗体，得到 很多晶莹的珠子，称为“舍利子”。人们为了纪念他，就 把舍利分别建墓埋葬，这就是塔。随着佛教的传播，塔的用途更加广泛，除了安置舍利，还可以收藏佛经、佛教宝物以及埋葬僧侣，逐渐成为一种纪念性建筑。 Legend has it that after Sakyamuni's death, his disciples cremated his body and received many brilliant beads, which are called "Buddhist relics." Followers built tombs to bury these Buddhist relics and commemorate him, and those tombs were the rudiments of pagodas. With the spread of Buddhism, the pagoda began to serve a wide range of purposes. In addition to preserving Buddhist relics, they can also be used to house Buddhist scriptures and valuable Buddhist objects and bury the remains of Buddhist monks, and gradually become kinds of commemorative structures. 塔作为一种建筑形式，东汉时传入中国，后逐渐吸收 中国建筑的风格，材质、造型和功用也不断丰富。 Ancient Pagoda塔 1 2 建筑篇 Architecture 223Pagodas as an architectural form were introduced into China during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD), gradually adopting the style of Chinese architecture and thereby increased their range of building materials, styles and functions. 中国传统建筑以木结构为主，所以早期塔也是木塔。 山西应县木塔建于 1056 年， 是中国现存最古老的大型木塔。 为了防火和保持坚固，隋唐以后建造了大量的砖石和砖木混合结构塔。塔身的层数都是单数，以七、十一、十三最多见。 Traditional Chinese architecture mainly employs wood structures, so pagodas in the early stages were also made of wood. The wooden pagoda in Yingxian County, Shanxi was built in 1056, and is the largest wooden pagoda still in existence in China. For the sake of fire prevention and consolidation, many pagodas built with bricks and stones or bricks and wood occurred after the Sui and Tang Dynasties. All pagodas had or have odd - numbered tiers, and most are seven -, eleven - or thirteen -storied. 印度塔最初的形状是半圆形的。中国塔的造型则有楼 阁式、密檐式、喇嘛式等。楼阁式塔的特点是层与层之间 距离大，每层设门窗，塔内有楼梯，可以登高远望。这种塔最多，西安大雁塔、苏州虎丘塔、杭州六和塔、山西应县木塔等都属于这一种。密檐式塔的特点是塔身下部第一 层特别高大，以上各层则距离很小，塔内实心，没有楼梯，因而无法登临。典型的密檐塔有云南大理崇圣寺千寻塔等。喇嘛塔多分布在蒙藏地区，元代以后也出现在华北地区，特点是多为方形底座，塔身类似圆大肚，塔面为白色，上面有尖顶，北京北海白塔、扬州瘦西湖白塔都属这一类。 Indian pagodas were actually an evolution of stupa, a tomb - like structure, but Chinese pagodas vary from the style of pavilion to that of dense eaves and that of lamas. Pavilion -styled pagodas feature large distances between tiers. They have doors and windows for each tier, and there are stairs inside. People can climb up the pagodas to enjoy a distant The Xiaoyan Pagoda in Xi'anThe Dayan Pagoda in Xi'an The Wooden Pagoda in Yingxian County, Shanxi2. 西安小雁塔1. 西安大雁塔 3. 山西应县木塔 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 224view. Such pagodas exist in the largest number in China, for example, the Dayan Pagoda in Xi'an, the Tiger's Hill Pagoda in Suzhou, the Six - Harmonies Pagoda in Hangzhou and the Wooden Pagoda in Yingxian County, Shanxi all belong to this style. For the style of dense eaves, the first tier in the lower part of a pagoda is extraordinarily large and lofty, and the distances between each tier above are very small. Such pagodas are solid and there are no stairs inside, therefore, people cannot climb up them. Typical pagodas of these kinds include the Qianxun Pagoda in the Chongsheng Temple, Dali, Yunnan Province. Lamaist pagodas are mostly located in Inner Mongolia and Tibetan areas, and some can be seen in North China after the Yuan Dynasty. These kinds of pagodas feature square bases, round bodies in the middle, sharp tops, and white surfaces. The White Pagoda in the Beihai Lake in Beijing and the White Pagoda in the Slim West Lake in Yangzhou all belong to this type. 由于塔的基本功用是埋藏佛骨， 因此很多塔在倾塌后， 塔基下和塔体内都会有舍利出土。1987 年陕西省扶风县唐 代法门寺塔因年久失修而倒塌，塔下的地宫中出土了佛指舍利和大量供佛的珍贵物品，引起国内外的极大关注。 The basic function of pagodas was to bury the remains of Buddhist monks, so Buddhist relics can be excavated below the bases and inside the pagoda bodies after many pagodas collapsed. For example, the most dramatic event was in 1987 when a pagoda in the Famen Temple of the Tang Dynasty in Fufeng County near Xi'an collapsed due to old age and disrepair, a finger relic of the Buddha and many valuable sacrificial objects were unearthed from the underground palace below the pagoda. The incident received great attention both at home and abroad. 中国古塔除了宗教的纪念 意义外，还常常具有登高远望 以及点缀风景的作用，一些塔甚至专为美化山川风景而建。 Apart from their commemorative use, ancient pagodas in China can often be used for looking into the distance from lofty points and as the highlight of a scenic spot, and some pagodas were even exclusively constructed to beautify landscapes. 　The White Pagoda in the Beihai Lake, Beijing1. 北京北海白塔 1 建筑篇 Architecture 225中国地域辽阔，江河纵 横。作为沟通性的建筑，桥 梁数量众多。由于中国各地的地形气候千差万别，民众的审美观念和建筑技术各有不同，中国各地的桥梁也呈现出鲜明的地域特色。一般说来，北方地区的桥平坦宽阔，适合车马行走；江南水乡的桥则凸起较高，便于桥 下的船只通过。河水较大较急的地方，桥墩厚实稳固；水流平缓的地方，桥墩则轻巧灵秀。 China has a vast territory that abounds with rivers. Correspondingly, a great number of bridges are found in China. Due to various landforms, climates, aesthetic views and architectural techniques, bridges all over China display remarkable local features. Usually, bridges in north China are even and broad, suitable for the passage of carriages; while those in south China mostly rise in the middle part so that boats can pass below. In places where rivers are large and currents are fierce, the piers are thick and more consolidate; in places where the water flows gently, the piers are smaller and appear more elegant. 在各种类型的桥梁中，拱桥因为承受能力强并且造型 优美而成为桥梁建筑的基本形式，集中体现了中国古代造 桥技术的水平。 Among all types of bridges, arch bridges are the basic form of bridge architecture because of their strong bearing abilities and beautiful shapes, offering a concentrated representation of the level of bridge construction in ancient China.桥梁 Ancient Bridge The Seventeen Arches Bridge in the Summer Palace1. 颐和园十七孔桥1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 226拱桥的桥洞成弧形，就像 虹。中国的诗人爱把拱桥比作 虹， 说拱桥是 “卧虹” “飞虹” ，把水上拱桥形容为 “长虹卧波” 。 Chinese poets liken the broad archways of arch bridges to rainbows, describing them as "lying rainbows" or "flying rainbows." 河北赵县的赵州桥，原名 安济桥，是现存世界上最早的 单孔石拱桥，隋代工匠李春建造，至今已有 1,400 多年了，仍然十分坚固。赵州桥全长50 多米，只有一个大拱，有 30 多米长，在当时可算是世界上最长的石拱。 桥洞不是普通的半圆形， 而是像一张弓，高度却只有 7 米多，因而上面的道路没有陡坡，便于车马上下。大拱的两肩上，各有两个小拱。这个创造性的设计，不但节约了石料，减轻了桥身的重量，而且在河水暴涨的时候， 还可以增加桥洞的过水量， 减轻洪水对桥身的冲击。同时，拱上加拱，桥身也更美观。全桥结构匀称，和四周景色配合得十分和谐， 桥上的石栏石板也雕刻得古朴美观。 Zhaozhou Bridge in Zhaoxian County of Hebei Province, originally known as Anji Bridge, is the earliest stone arch bridge with one major arch still in existence in the world. Although it was built by a mason named Li Chun of the Sui Dynasty more than 1,400 years ago, it is still very sturdy even today. The bridge totals more than 50 meters in length, with only one major arch that spans more than 30 meters. It may have been the longest stone arch in the world at that time. The arch is like a bow rather than an ordinary semicircle. Only more than seven meters in height, the bridge floor has no steep slope, and is thus convenient for the passage of horse -pulled carts. On each shoulder of the major arch there are two arch -shaped holes respectively. This creative design not only saved building materials and lessened the weight of the bridge, but also helped ease the flow of water in times of flooding. In addition, the style of arches makes the construction more beautiful. The whole bridge is well - proportioned, and is very harmonious with the surrounding views. The stone balustrades and flagstones were carved in a simple and elegant fashion. 1 2 建筑篇 Architecture 227北京永定河上的卢沟桥，修建于金代，距今已有 800 多年的历史了。 今天仍然可以通过大型货车， 可见它的坚固。 桥长 260 多米，由 11 个半圆形的石拱组成，桥宽约 8 米，桥面平坦，几乎与河面平行。桥面用石板铺砌，两旁有石栏石柱，上面雕刻了 500 多个狮子。这些石刻狮子有的母子相抱，有的交头接耳，有的像倾听水声，有的像注视行人，神态各异，惟妙惟肖。早在 13 世纪，卢沟桥就闻名世界。那时候意大利人马可·波罗来过中国，他在游记里十分推崇这座桥，说它“是世界上独一无二的”，并且特别欣赏桥栏柱上刻的狮子，说它们“共同构成美丽的奇观”。在国内，这座桥也历来为人们所称赞。1937 年 7 月 7 日，中国军队在此抗击日本侵略者，揭开了抗日战争的序幕。 Lugou Bridge over the Yongding River in the suburbs of Beijing, also known as Marco Polo's Bridge, was built in the Kin Dynasty, and has a history of more than 800 years but can still support the passage of large -sized trucks. It is more than 260 meters long and about eight meters wide, consisting of eleven semicircle stone arches. The road of the bridge is flat, almost parallel with the water surface of the river. The bridge floor is paved with flagstones, featuring more than 500 lions carved on the stone posts and balustrades on both sides of the bridge. These lions are in different sizes and have vivid postures, some appearing as a mother lioness and cub hugging each other, some seemingly whispering and listening to each other, or listening to the sound of flowing waters, and others seeming to be watching passengers. As early as in the 13th century, Lugou Bridge has been world -renowned. At that time, an Italian man Marco Polo paid a visit to China. In his travelogue he spoke of this bridge highly, praising it as "unique in the world." He was especially fond of the lions carved on the stone posts and balustrades, thinking that they "together constitute a beautiful wonder." At home, this bridge has been praised through the centuries. In 1937, the July 7 Incident broke out here between Japan's Imperial Army and China's National Revolutionary Army, which marked the beginning of the anti -Japanese war.Lugou BridgeZhaozhou Bridge A small bridge south of the Yangtze River in its lower reaches 3. 卢沟桥1. 赵州桥 2. 江南小桥 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 228园林 Classical Gardens 世界上的园林，大致 可以分为两大系统。一类 是 18 世纪以前的欧洲园林。这类园林的景物，如山水地形、树木花草，都被整修成规矩整齐的几何形体，成为体现人工美的“几何式园林”。另一类园林就是中国古典园林。特征是合理利用自然环境，加上人工的布置，形成富有自然情趣的意境。这是具有中国风格的“自然风景式园林”。 Gardens in the world can be divided into two general types: One is the European gardens before the 18th century, wherein objects such as landscapes and plants are all shaped into regular geometric forms, becoming "geometric gardens" that display artificial beauty; the other is classical gardens in China, which make sensible use of the natural environment and artificial arrangement, creating atmospheres which remind people of nature. The latter is Chinese -styled "gardens of natural views." 中国园林由建筑、山水、花木等组合而成，是自然与 人工的完美结合， 既是对自然的模拟， 也是对自然的加工， 充满了古典的诗情画意。 Chinese gardens consist of constructions, landscapes and plants. They are the perfect combination of the natural and the artificial beauty. They are both the imitation of nature and the transformation of nature, imbued with classical poetic taste. The Lion Forest Garden in Suzhou The Liuyuan Garden in Suzhou1. 苏州狮子林 2. 苏州留园 1 建筑篇 Architecture 229中国园林要求在很小的空间里营造出内涵丰富的情境， 园林内部以含蓄曲折、层次幽深为主要特色。中国人为此 总结了大量有效的法则和手段，具有成熟的造园理论，比如，在园林的入口处设置一座假山，以免园内景色直白地显露出来；水岸修成曲折而不是平直的线条，以显得有自然风味 。此外，中国园林还常常借助园名和对园内建筑、 山水景色的题名以及字画等来表明主人的意趣和精神追求，如苏州网师园，“网师”即渔翁，表现出园主与世无争的生活理想；拙政园中的“与谁同坐轩”则取自苏轼的“与谁同坐？明月清风我”，以此来暗示主人清高的品格。 Chinese gardens are intended to create an atmosphere of abundant contents within a small space; inside a garden, one mainly finds indirectness, sinuosity, tranquility and depth. For this the Chinese people have summarized many effective rules and measures, and established a mature garden -building theory. For example, an artificial hill is set at the entrance of the garden in case the scenery inside the garden is directly unfolded; the banks of water are sinuous lines rather than straight ones so that they show the tendency of nature. In addition, Chinese gardens often reveal the owners' taste and spiritual pursuit by means of the names of gardens, the names of constructions and views inside the gardens, and decorative calligraphy and paintings. For example, in the name of the Netter's Garden in Suzhou, the word "netter" just means "an old fisherman," suggesting the owner's reclusive tendency; and the name of the "Who -Is-to- Sit-With Pavilion" in the Zhuozheng Garden comes from Su Shi's poem, "Who is to sit with? Only the bright moon, the breeze and me," which implies the owner's pure and lofty character. 园林按照所属功能，可分为三类： 皇家园林、私宅园林、寺观园林。现 存的皇家园林多建于明清两代，与帝王的宫殿相结合。现存完好的三大皇家园林是北京三海 （北海、 中海、 南海） 、颐和园和承德避暑山庄。皇家园林占 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 230地广大，气象雄伟。黄色的琉璃瓦，朱红的廊柱，汉白玉 的栏杆，精美的雕刻和绘画，都使园林显得富丽堂皇。私宅园林以风格秀美、文化内涵丰厚著称，是中国园林艺术的典型代表。私宅园林遍布全国，但以自古文人荟萃的苏州、杭州、扬州等地最为集中。苏州号称“园林之城”，其中以沧浪亭、狮子林、拙政园和留园最负盛名，合称“苏州四大名园”。寺观园林是指附属于佛寺或道观的园林，也是寺观的一部分，一般都向公众开放，这是它与皇家园林和私宅园林明显的不同之处。北京香山碧云寺、杭州灵隐寺等都具有这类园林的性质。 Classical Chinese gardens can be roughly divided into three types: royal gardens, private gardens and temple gardens. Most extant royal gardens were built in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and are combined with imperial palaces; now, the best -preserved royal gardens are the Summer Palace, Beihai Park and Zhongnanhai in Beijing, and the Summer Resort in Chengde. Royal gardens tend to cover vast lands and appear imposing. With golden glazed titles, vermilion colonnades, white marble balustrades, refined ornamented beams, they are filled with a sense of magnificence and grandeur. Private gardens are famous for their ingenious style and abundant cultural contents, and are the typical representative of Chinese gardening arts. Private gardens can be found all over China, but are mostly distributed in Suzhou, Hangzhou and Yangzhou. In particular, Suzhou is reputed to be "a city of private gardens." Among the gardens in Suzhou, the best -known are the Canglang Pavilion, the Lion Forest, the Zhuozheng Garden and the Liuyuan Garden, which are called the "four best known gardens of Suzhou." Different from the former two types, temple gardens refer to those attached to Buddhist or Taoist temples. Such a garden is a part of the temple, and is usually open to the public, which is a distinct difference. The Biyun Temple in Mount Xiangshan in Beijing and the Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou all belong to this type of garden.The Summer Palace in Beijing1. 北京颐和园 1 建筑篇 Architecture 231 Lou (Storied Buildings) and Ting (Kiosk), Xuan (Pavilions) and Xie 楼亭轩榭 楼、亭、轩、榭以及回廊都是园林中常见的建筑，有 些也单独构成景点和实用的建筑物。 Storied buildings, kiosks, pavilions and corridors are constructions commonly seen in Chinese gardens, though sometimes they independently form scenic spots and serve as practical structures. 楼阁是指两层以上的房屋建筑，一般用作居住，也可 以用来悬挂钟鼓、藏书供佛、装饰城门，如中国各地常见 的钟鼓楼、藏书楼、城楼等。还有一些楼阁专为观赏风景而建， 现存的历史名楼都在山水胜地， 如湖北武汉的黄鹤楼、湖南岳阳的岳阳楼、江西南昌的滕王阁等。 Lou and ge refer to buildings of two or more stories. Usually they are used as residences, but can also be used to hang bells and drums, house books, enshrine Buddhist images, and decorate city gates. For example, bell and drum buildings, the book -housing buildings and gate towers are commonly seen all over China. In other cases, some storied buildings are specially built for scenery appreciation, and the extant historically famous storied buildings are all located in renowned scenic spots, including the Yellow Crane Building in Wuhan, Hubei Province, the Yueyang Building in Yueyang, Hunan Province and the Tengwang Building in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. 亭是一种尖顶、没有墙的小型建筑物。平面设计可以 是圆形、扇形、方形、六角形、八角形等。亭子可以供人 赏景和休息，因此一般建在适于观赏风景的地方。亭子也为周围景物增添了不少情趣，本身也是一种风景建筑。北京陶然亭、湖南长沙爱晚亭、山东济南历下亭等，都是较为著名的亭子。 The Yueyang Building The Aiwan Kiosk in Changsha1. 岳阳楼 2. 长沙爱晚亭1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 232Ting (kiosk) refers to a small -sized structure with a slanted roof, but without walls. Its plane layout can be circular, flabellate, square, hexagonal or octagonal, etc. Such kiosks are used for people to enjoy scenery and relaxation, so they are usually built in places convenient for sightseeing. Meanwhile, kiosks themselves add to the surroundings. Famous kiosks include the Taoran Kiosk in Beijing, the Aiwan Kiosk in Changsha, Hunan, and the Lixia Kiosk in Ji'nan, Shandong. 榭，原指建在高台上的四面开敞的屋子，现在一般指 园林中建在花丛中、 水边或水上供人们游赏观景的建筑物。 近水的称水榭，近花的称花榭。因为主要用于赏景、休息，所以这类建筑都很通透，有的设置可以推拉的门窗，很少建造实在的墙体。园林中的水榭通常是长方形，屋顶檐角翘起， 临水的一面敞开， 设弯曲的外凸栏杆， 俗称 “美人靠” ，以便人们近距离观赏水景。 Xie refers to a pavilion with four opening sides built on a high terrace, which are usually built over or beside an expanse of water or flowers in a garden. They are places where visitors can enjoy a beautiful view. Pavilions such as this that are built near water are called "waterside pavilions," while those near flowers are called "flower pavilions." Because they are intended for recreation, such constructions have open sides, and although some have doors and windows, few have solid walls. Waterside pavilions in gardens are usually rectangular shaped, with the corners of eaves on the roofs rising up. Their sides facing the water are open with protruding balusters, so that people may enjoy water scenes up close. 廊是联系建筑物的通道。不仅可以遮蔽风雨，而且可 以分隔景区，使景致更加曲折多变。精心设计的回廊往往 也是一座园林的导游路线图，游人在廊中行走，能够边走边欣赏美妙的景 色。 Corridors are passageways linking buildings, which not only provide shelter from the weather but also separate scenic zones and allow for more varied scenery. An elaborately designed cloister is often a guiding map for a garden. Along the cloister, visitors can enjoy wonderful scenes while strolling along. The long corridor in the Summer Palace The Shuixin Pavilion of Chengde Mountain Resort1. 颐和园长廊 2. 承德避暑山庄水心榭 1 2 建筑篇 Architecture 233民居 Civil Residences 中国疆域辽阔，民族众多，各地 的自然环境和人们的生活方式差别很 大。因此，各地民居的建筑材料和建筑形式都有显著不同。北京四合院、西北黄土高原上的窑洞、安徽古民居和广东、福建的客家土楼等都很有特 色。 China has a vast territory and many ethnic groups, with natural environments and people's lifestyles that vary greatly from one place to another. Therefore, civil residences in different parts of the country differ in terms of building materials and architectural styles. For example, the siheyuan of Beijing, the cave -dwellings of the Loess Plateau in northwest China, the ancient houses of Anhui Province and the earthen tower of Hakka of Fujian are all very unique. 四合院是汉族民居的代表形式，由东、西、南、北四面 房屋围合起来，形成院落式住宅，以北京四合院最为典型。 一般说来，四合院都是坐北朝南，北面的是正房，由家庭中辈分最高的人居住；东西两侧的房子叫厢房，由辈分较低的人居住；南房一般住仆人或放杂物。尊卑长幼一目了然。四面房屋各自独立，中间有的由廊子连接，居住十分方便。四合院有各种规模，最简单的只有一个院子，大的还可以纵深和横向增加院落，各院落之间以厅或门相连。四合院是封闭的住宅，对外只有一个临街的门，具有很强的私密性。四合院的建筑和居住格局形象地体现了中国传统的家族制度。 Siheyuan are the representative form of the Han people's civil residence. They are compounds enclosed by inward -facing houses on four sides, and the most typical ones are those in Beijing. Usually, all The siheyuan of Beijing1. 北京四合院1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 234siheyuan quadrangles face southwards, with the most important rooms facing the south, which are occupied by those of the highest position in the family. Rooms on the eastern and western sides are called xiangfang (wing -room), where the younger generations of the family live, and the rooms facing the north are usually for servants or used as storage houses. Such an arrangement clearly shows the hierarchic relations within the quadrangle. Houses on the four sides are independent, and each are connected via corridors for daily life convenience. Siheyuan vary in size; the simplest have only one courtyard, while larger ones may include extra yards either in longitudinal or horizontal direction, with all such yards connected with halls or doors. A siheyuan is a closed residence with only one front door, allowing for better privacy. The architectural structure and occupancy arrangement of a siheyuan vividly embodies the traditional family system of China. 窑洞是中国西北黄土地带常见的民居住宅形式，以黄 河中上游黄土高原上的窑洞最为典型。这里的黄土直立性 强，很难渗水，这是窑洞建造的基本前提。挖掘窑洞的方式主要有两种。一种是在天然土崖上挖掘，往往数洞相邻；一种是先在地上挖出一个大坑，然后在大坑的四壁挖掘窑洞，犹如一个地下院落。窑洞的建造相对简便，材料也较简单，不需要很多木材砖石。窑洞内冬暖夏凉。窑洞适应了所在地区干燥少雨、木材稀少等自然状况。作为一种建筑形式，已有四五千年的历史，现在仍在沿用。 Cave -dwellings are a form of civil residences commonly seen in the loess areas of northwest China, and the most typical ones are distributed in the Loess Plateau in the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River. Loess has a characteristic called vertical cleavage, and water can hardly seep through it, creating the basic conditions for the building of cave -dwellings. People dig arch -shaped caves curving upwards on loess cliffs, and install doors and windows at the entrances. There are two ways to dig cave -dwellings. One is to dig caves on natural loess cliffs, often with several caves connecting with each other; and the other is to dig a huge pit on the loess ground at first, then dig caves on the walls of the pit. In the latter pattern, it is just like an underground courtyard. The building of cave -dwellings is relatively simple, and so it is with the building materials. Cave -dwellings do not require too much limber, bricks or stones, and are warm in winter and cool in summer. They suit the natural conditions where they are, such as low rainfall and insufficient wood. As an architectural form, it has a history over 4,000 to 5,000 years, and is still in use today. A cave-dwelling in northern Shaanxi A Hakka tulouThe ancient Anhui civil residences1. 陕北窑洞 3. 客家土楼2. 安徽传统民居1 建筑篇 Architecture 235徽派民居主要分布在安徽省南部。历史上这里人多地 少，很多人外出经商，这就是有名的“徽商”。他们致富 后在家乡兴建宅院，较强的经济实力和当地丰厚的文化底蕴成就了徽派民居的独特风貌。徽派民居的基本格局是以三开间或五开间的二层小楼为正房， 一侧或两侧配以厢房。周围以高大围墙包绕，内部是狭小的庭院和天井。面对天井的楼上设栏板和座椅， 供主人休息赏景。 天井内设水池，以承接屋檐下漏的雨水，并认为这还有“聚财”的吉祥含义。 建筑结构既节约土地， 又便于防火、 防盗、 降温、 防潮。宅内各处梁柱、栏板都有精美雕刻。徽派民居以黑白色调为主，坐落在青山绿水之间，显得非常恬淡秀雅。 Ancient civil residences of Anhui are mainly distributed in the south of Anhui Province. Historically, it was a place with a large population and relatively little arable land, and many people had to stay out as businessmen —known as the famous "Anhui businessmen." After becoming rich, they built residences in their hometown. Their strong economic strength and profound local cultural background helped form the unique style of Anhui ancient civil residences. For their basic layout, an ancient Anhui civil residence has a three -room or five -room two - storied building as its major structure, with wing -rooms at one or two sides. The houses are surrounded with lofty bounding walls, and inside are a small yard and a dooryard. On the storied building opposite to the dooryard are set handrail plates and chairs for the owners to repose and enjoy scenery. In the dooryard there is a pool to collect rainfall from the eaves, and show the auspicious meaning of "collection of fortune." The architectural structure can not only save land, but also prevent fires, theft, excessive heat and dampness. Beams, pillars and partition panels are all carved with refined patterns. The ancient Anhui civil residences are mainly black and white in color; located among green mountains and clean water, they appear quiet and elegant. 土楼，通常称为“客家土楼”。所谓“客家”， 是历史上陆续南迁到福建、广东地区的中原汉人。 客家土楼有圆形、方形、椭圆形等，最具代表性的是圆形土楼。有的是一环楼，更多的是二环以上的多环同心圆楼。多环同心圆楼外高内低，楼内有楼， 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 236环环相套，具有堡垒式封闭的外观。以福建永定著名的承 启楼为例，它由三环主楼叠套组成，直径有 73 米，最外环是四层楼房，第二环是二层楼房，第三环为平房。土楼内厨房、卧室、仓库、水井等生活设施一应俱全。几乎所有的圆土楼都只有一个出入口，而且从外部很难将门打开。历史上， 这里兵患、 匪患严重， 不同姓氏间的冲突也很频繁，客观条件迫使客家人以家族为单位，聚集在一起生活，因而创造了土楼这种具有严密防御 （yù） 性质的民居建筑形式。 Tulou (earth building) are also known as "Hakka tulou." The so-called Hakka are the descendents of the Han people who migrated from Mid -China to Fujian and Guangdong in succession throughout history. Hakka tulou are round, square or elliptic in shape, but the round -shaped buildings are the most typical. Some are one -ring buildings, but others are multi -ring concentric round buildings. For the multi -ring concentric structures, the outer circles are higher and inner are lower, with buildings upon buildings, and rings containing rings; they have a fort -shaped closed appearance. Take the famous Chengqi Building in Yongding, Fujian as an example. It is made up of three circles of major storied buildings, with one upon another. The whole complex is round in shape, with a diameter of 73 meters. The outermost ring is a four -storied building, the second is a two -storied one, and the third innermost ring is a group of bungalows. This tulou complex has hundreds of rooms, complete with life amenities such as kitchens, bedrooms, storage houses and a well. Almost all round - shaped tulou buildings have only one entrance and it is difficult to open the gate from outside. Historically, the areas inhabited by Hakka were plagued by disruptive troops and gangs, and conflicts between clans with different family names broke out frequently. Due to such difficult conditions, Hakka formed clans as basic units, clustering and living together, and thus creating tulou, a civil architectural form with a strong defensive function. 此外，北方草原民族的毡房— —蒙古包，新疆地区的 土坯房，云南、贵州等地的干栏式住宅①等，都是很有特色 的民居形式。 In addition, yurts —kinds of felt houses of ethnic groups inhabiting the grasslands in northern China, the earth houses in Xinjiang, the stilt -fence styled ① houses in Yunnan and Guizhou, are also very unique forms of civil residences. 小注解·Footnotes ① 干栏式住宅：多见于中 国东南、西南等气候湿热地区 的一种建筑形式。一般为木结构，二层，上面一层住人，下面关牲畜和放置杂物。上层离地有二米多高， 可以防潮散热，还能防御毒蛇野兽，牲畜关在下面便于看管。 ① Stilt-fence styled: Mostly seen in southeast and southwest China with damp and hot climates. Usually it is a two-storied wooden structure, with the upper floor for people, and the lower for livestock and sundries. The upper floor is more than two meters high from the ground, thus is able to prevent dampness, heat, poisonous snakes and fierce wild animals, and it is convenient to tend livestock kept on the lower floor. 1A yurt1. 蒙古包 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 237 民族篇 237民族篇 237工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 云南扎染 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 238A cup of gold jewelry inlaid in the Qing Dynasty1. 清代金嵌珠宝金瓯永固杯 1工艺美术是含有艺术价值的手工或工业制艺品。中国 的工艺美术至少可以上溯到 8,000 年前，是世界上不多的 具有连续传统的工艺美术之一。它记录了数千年来中国人在生产生活中对各种材料和技术的使用、创新的能力，以直观的形象展现出中国人特有的审美观念和生活状态。新石器时期的陶器和玉器，商周时期的青铜器，汉代的丝绸和漆器，隋唐的金银器，宋代的瓷器以及明清以来全面发展的民族工艺美术，不仅使中国传统工艺美术在世界上享有极高的声誉，而且长期是中华文明传播的主要载体。从中国的工艺美术品中，国外人士享受了它们的实用价值，也欣赏了它们的审美价值，并逐渐感受到中国传统文化的灿烂辉煌和博大精深。 Here, arts and crafts refer to manual and industrial products with artistic value; Chinese arts and crafts date back to at least 8,000 years ago, and are one of a few forms of arts and crafts with continuously practiced traditions in the world. Records reveal the Chinese people's use and creation of various materials and techniques in production and daily life for thousands of years, visually depicting the aesthetic view and life state peculiar to the Chinese people. The earthenware and jade ware of the New Stone Age, the bronze ware of the Shang (17th -11th century BC) and Zhou (11th century -256 BC) Dynasties, the lacquer ware and silk fabrics of the Han (206 BC -220 AD), the golden and silvery ware of the Sui (581 -618 AD) and Tang (618 -907 AD) Dynasties, the porcelains of the Song Dynasty (960 -1279 AD), and the all -round development of national arts and crafts in the Ming (1368 -1644 AD) and Qing (1644 -1911 AD) Dynasties, have not only garnered a high reputation for traditional Chinese arts and crafts, but also been a major carrier for the spread of Chinese civilization. Foreigners enjoy the practical value of Chinese arts and crafts, appreciate their aesthetic value, and come to perceive the splendor and profundity of traditional Chinese spiritual culture.概述 Introduction 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 239陶器 Pottery and Porcelain 中国最早的陶器出现在 一万年以前的新石器时代①。 原始陶器的分布遍及黄河和 长江流域，其中最著名的陶器是彩陶，就是先用红、黑、白等颜料在陶土坯上绘制图案，然后入窑烧制的陶器。因为经过烧制，所以图案不易脱落。在彩陶上，动物、植物、人物和几何这四种基本的图案类型已经齐备。这些图案常常与制陶者的日常生活和原始信仰有关。如：渔网的形状，以及嘴里叼着小鱼的巫师或鱼神的形象，都表达了人们想要获得更多鱼儿的愿望；在彩陶中大量出现的鸟和蛙的形象，可能是太阳神和月亮神崇拜的体现。还有一些图案的含义现在也不是很清楚。如西北地区的彩陶花纹上下旋转，变化奇妙。有人认为是模拟水的漩涡， 也有人认为是表示鸟或青蛙等动物。彩陶上的图案尽管很神秘，但大都表现出很强的节奏感和韵律美，显示出永恒的艺术魅力。 The earliest earthenware of China appeared in the New Stone Age① 10,000 years ago, and the distribution of primitive earthenware stretched all over the reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The most famous among these artifacts are colored earthenware, which were fired after patterns were painted on the greenware with red, black or white pigment. Patterns on the greenware do not easily shed off after firing. On the colored earthenware, the four basic pattern types of animals, plants, human figures and geometrical shapes are all commonly found. Those patterns were often related to the daily life and primitive Colored earthenware with a swirl pattern, a relic of the Majiayao Culture1. 马家窑文化漩涡状图案彩陶 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 新石器时代：是继旧石 器时代之后，以使用磨制石器 为标志的人类文化发展阶段。年代大约从距今一万多年开始，结束时间从距今 5,000 多年至2,000 多年不等。新石器时代有三个基本特征：开始制造和使用磨制石器；发明了陶器；出现了农业和畜牧业。 ① New Stone Age: A stage of mankind's development after the Old Stone Age, marked by the use of ground stones. It began more than 10,000 year ago and ended roughly from more than 5,000 years to 2,000 years ago. The New Stone Age has three basic characteristics: the making and use of ground stones; the invention of earthenware; and the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 240beliefs of potters — for example, the shape of a fishing net and the image of a wizard or a fishing god with a small fish in his mouth express people's desire to catch more fish; the figures of birds or frogs appearing on the colored earthenware in a large number may indicate the worship of a sun god or a moon god, etc. The meaning of some other patterns are still unclear; for instance, decorative patterns on the colored earthenware in northwest regions are in the shape of upward or downward swirls and involve wonderful changes, which some people suggest are the imitation of whirlpools, but others argue that they stand for animals such as birds or frogs. Patterns on the colored earthenware are very mysterious, but most show a strong sense of rhythm and lasting artistic charms. 唐三彩是唐代出现的一种独特的彩色釉②陶器。它与 瓷器不同，它的烧制温度约在 800 至 1,100 摄氏度，瓷器 烧造则要达到 1,300 摄氏度以上。此外，唐三彩釉色虽然鲜艳但不像瓷器那样透明，它呈现出黄、绿、白、蓝、褐等多种绚丽的釉色，所谓三彩只是形容它的色彩丰富。唐三彩要经过两次烧制，先烧塑好陶胎，然后把调好的各种金属釉料涂在上面，再做二次烘烧。不同的金属釉料受热后变成各种颜色， 并向四周扩散流淌， 最后形成绚烂多彩、变化万千的釉色。 Tangsancai are unique types of tri -colored glazed② pottery in the Tang Dynasty (618 -907 AD). Porcelains are fired at temperatures above 1,300℃, but tangsancai were baked at temperatures from 800 to 1,100℃. The glaze used on tangsancai have bright colors such as yellow, green, white, blue, brown, etc., but do not have the transparency of porcelains, and the term "tri -" or "san " simply suggests the abundance of colors. In the process of firing, tangsancai must be baked twice —greenware must be fired first, then they are painted with various mixtures of metal glazes, and are once again fired. Different metal glaze materials show corresponding colors after they are heated, flowing in all directions, and forming a variety of splendid glaze colors. 唐三彩主要用于社会上层的陪葬，造型主要是人物和 动物。这些物品色泽艳丽，造型生动，很多被仿制成今日 室内陈放的艺术品， 其中以骏马和骆驼的形象最受人喜爱。很多唐三彩是写实的作品，具有鲜明的时代特征，不少学小注解·Footnotes ② 釉：即釉子。以石英等 矿物质为原料，磨成粉末，加 水调制而成的物质。用来涂在陶瓷半成品的表面，烧制后发出玻璃光泽。 ② Glaze: Glaze results from mixing some ground minerals such as quartz together with water. It is painted on the surface of greenware and sheds the luster of glass after being fired. 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 241者据此研究唐代的社会风貌，比如当时人们的服装和生活 习惯等。 Tangsancai, mainly consisting of human and animal figurines, were mostly used as burial objects for higher classes. Those objects have bright colors and vivid figures, and many of them have been copied into the exhibits in today's displaying halls, among which the images of horses and camels are most welcome. In addition, many tangsancai were realistic works and had obvious traits of their times, therefore, many scholars take them as reference to research the social customs of the Tang Dynasty, such as the costumes and living habits of people in that era. 紫砂是一种陶土，产于江苏宜兴。紫砂质地细腻，含 铁量高，经过烧制后呈现出赤褐、黑紫、青灰等色调。紫 砂壶色调优雅，用它沏茶还能够较长时间保持茶的色香味；茶壶本身握在手中，也有自然、温厚的感觉。很多文人雅士参与了紫砂壶的设计和制作，因而使紫砂壶具有了更加深厚的文化蕴涵。紫砂壶在造型上趋向古朴雅致且意蕴深远，如以包袱的形状比喻人心可包藏万千，以僧帽表达平静朴素，以梅树苍老的枝干体现沧桑之美，等。人们对上品紫砂壶极为看重，在明代，一把上品紫砂壶就相当于一户中等人家的家产。至今，紫砂名壶仍然是收藏家一生寻求的目标。 Purple clay is a kind of china clay produced in Yixing, Jiangsu. It is fine material with a high proportion of iron. After firing it becomes red-brown, black -purple or caesious. Purple clay pots look elegant. A teapot made of purple clay can keep the color and fragrance of tea for a longer period; the teapot itself displays an impressive feeling of naturalness, warmness and thickness. Many literati took part in the design and making of purple clay teapots, adding to their profound cultural background. Purple clay teapots have the qualities of simplicity, antiquity, elegance and meaningfulness in shapes; for example, they compare the shape of a package to a man's all -embracing mind, liken the shape of a monk's hat to a calm and simple mind, and connect the old trunk and branches of wintersweet to the beauty of vicissitudes. People value high quality purple clay teapots dearly; in the Ming Dynasty, such a teapot equaled the whole wealth of a middle -class household. Today, famous purple clay teapots are still a high goal among collectors. A tangsancai horse A purple clay teapot of the Ming Dynasty1. 唐代三彩骑马俑 2. 明代玉兰花瓣紫砂壶2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 242瓷器 Porcelains 中国的英文名字原意是“瓷器”。历史上，瓷器通过 陆路和海路大量输出到海外，被誉为奇珍异宝，受到高度 赞美，曾经和丝绸一起，成为中华文明的载体。 It is believed by some people that China got its English name from the word China. In history, a large number of porcelains were transported from China to other countries either overland or by seaways, and were highly praised as rare treasures. Together with silk, they became the carrier of Chinese civilization. 瓷器是在陶器烧制的基础上发展而来的。烧制陶器是 人类史前文明曾经普遍发生的现象。 而瓷器是中国的发明， 是古老中国对世界文明的伟大贡献之一。 Porcelain wares are a development of earthenware, and although the making of earthenware was a common phenomenon in the pre - history civilizations of mankind, porcelain was a Chinese invention and one of the greatest contributions that ancient China made to the world. 东汉时期，中国就生产出了瓷器。这些瓷器表面有一 层黄绿色的釉，因而被称作“青瓷”。唐代以前烧制青瓷 最好的地方是位于今天浙江地区的越窑。一直到几百年之后的隋唐，才出现了比较成熟的白瓷。唐代生产白瓷的瓷窑一般在北方，以位于今天河北的邢窑最为著名，当时就有人评价说 “邢窑的瓷器像银像雪， 越窑的瓷器像玉像冰” ， 以此形容邢瓷洁白晶莹，越瓷青碧温润。 The manufacturing of porcelain can date back to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -220 AD). Porcelain wares produced that time have a layer of celadon glaze, and they are thus called "celadon" as well. Before and during the Tang Dynasty, the best celadon was produced in the Yueyao Kiln of today's Zhejiang area, and the mature technique of white porcelain wares did not occur until the Tang Dynasty. In the Tang A white porcelain ware from the Xingyao Kiln of the Tang Dynasty A celadon double-ear bottle from the Longquan Kiln of the Song Dynasty A blue and white porcelain vase of the Yuan Dynasty1. 唐代邢窑白瓷瓷器 2. 宋代龙泉窑青瓷双耳瓶 3. 元代青花海水龙纹八棱带盖梅 瓶 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 243Dynasty, kilns producing white porcelain wares were usually located in north China, and those produced in the Xingyao Kiln of today's Hebei Province were the most famous. People of that time remarked that white porcelain wares from the Xingyao Kiln were as white and brilliant as silver and snow, while those from the Yueyao Kiln were as green and gentle as jade and ice. 两宋是中国瓷器发展的黄金时代。宋代著名的瓷窑， 有所谓五大名窑之说，即官窑、定窑、汝窑、钧窑、哥窑。 其中，位于今天河北的定窑以生产白瓷著名，其他属于青瓷系统。但是钧窑（窑址在河南）的瓷器不再是传统的青绿色，烧出的瓷器呈现出五彩缤纷的颜色，其中以蓝色和红色系列的瓷器最有魅力。此外，瓷器在烧造过程中会产生裂纹，宋瓷常常有意营造这种自然天成的美。宋代瓷器在工艺和美学上都达到了相当高的水平。 The Song Dynasty (960 -1279 AD) was a golden age for the development of china. Of the famous porcelain kilns of the Song Dynasty, the five most highly regarded were: Guanyao, Dingyao, Ruyao, Junyao and Geyao. In particular, the Dingyao Kiln in today's Hebei Province was famous for its production of white porcelain wares, and the other four kilns belonged to the system of celadon. However, the porcelains from the Junyao Kiln (located in Henan) were not traditionally celadon anymore, instead featuring multi -colors; in particular, those in blue and red were the most charming. In addition, porcelain wares may have cracks in the course of baking, and people of the Song Dynasty often deliberately created such natural beauty. The china of the Song Dynasty achieved a fairly high level both technically and aesthetically. 元代陶瓷以青花瓷最为著名。器物呈现出白底蓝花或 蓝底白花。青花瓷具有中国传统水墨画的效果，是很有民 族特色的瓷器品种。 In the Yuan Dynasty, the most famous porcelain wares were blue and white ones, with blue patterns against white backgrounds or white designs against blue backgrounds appearing on the utensils. The blue and white porcelain wares have the effect of traditional Chinese painting, and are a variety of china with distinct national characteristics. 明清时期，中国的瓷器出现五彩纷呈的局面。宋元时 期就以瓷器闻名的景德镇成为举世公认的“瓷都”，人们 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 244赞誉景德镇瓷器“白 如玉，薄如纸、声如磬（qìnɡ，一种声音 动听的乐器），明如镜”。明清又出现了多种彩瓷， 其中的 “斗彩”非常著名，一件瓷器上可以有好几种色彩，十分艳丽。 In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the porcelain industry of China flourished and more kinds of porcelain appeared. Jingdezhen, which had been renowned as early as in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, became a recognized "Capital of porcelain," and people remarked that the products from Jingdezhen were "as white as jade, as thin as a piece of paper, as euphonious as a musical instrument, and as bright as a mirror." Also, many types of colorful porcelain wares were created in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Among those colorful wares, "doucai" were very famous, and one piece of porcelain could have several colors to showcase a beautiful creation. 后来发展起来的湖南醴陵 （Lǐlínɡ） 、河北唐山、广 东石湾、山东淄博等地的陶瓷，也都以它们各自的特色享 誉海内外。 Later there appeared the ceramics of Liling of Hunan Province, Tangshan of Hebei Province, Shiwan of Guangdong Province, Zibo of Shandong Province, which are also well known for their respective features. 中国古代种种美丽的名瓷，被世人誉为奇珍异 宝。中国古代陶瓷也曾大量出口到海外，在中外交 流史上占有重要地位。进行陶瓷贸易的主要海上商路，则被学者们称为“陶瓷之路”。 Famous porcelain wares of ancient China have been praised as rare treasures. The potteries of China were exported in large numbers in ancient times, and held an important position in the history of exchanges between China and foreign countries. Accordingly, the major routes at sea for pottery trade are called "Pottery Road" by scholars. A color ceramic pot of the Ming Dynasty A color ceramic plate of the Qing Dynasty1. 明代斗彩花蝶纹罐 2. 清代五彩描金花蝶纹攒盘 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 245丝绸 Silk 丝绸是古代中国人的发明。在世界最古老的 四大文明中，只有中国使用丝纤维。丝绸很早以 前就输送到了西方，大约在公元前 3 世纪时，西方已经把中国称作“丝国”。 Silk was invented by Chinese people in ancient times; among the four greatest civilizations in the world, China was the only one that made use of silk fibers. Silk was introduced into the West very early, after which the West began to call China a "silk country" around the third century. 传说是黄帝的妻子嫘祖 （Léizǔ） 发明了养蚕、抽取蚕 丝和织绸的技术。 早期的丝织品实物在中国南北都有发现， 距今已有四五千年。实际上，丝织品是古代工艺品中最难保存的，中国人开始养蚕纺织的年代应该更早。 Legend has it that Lei Zu, wife of Emperor Huangdi, invented sericulture, silk reeling and weaving. Silk products in the early stage have been found both in north and south China that date back to 4,000 or 5,000 years ago. However, as silk is the most difficult to preserve among all ancient craftwork, the Chinese people's sericulture probably dates back even earlier. Silk worms Unearthed silk products of the Han Dynasty1. 蚕 2. 汉代出土的绢织物1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 246丝绸织物柔软 、舒 适、美观。按照质地和 织造工艺的不同，可分为绢、 纱、 罗、 绫、 锦、 缎、丝绒等多个种类。西汉时期，中国的纺织技艺已经非常高超，织出的纱可像蝉的翅膀一样薄。锦、缎都是比较高档的丝织物，特别是清代以来南京地区生产的云锦，紧密厚重，花纹绚烂，中间还常常织进金线，显得富丽豪华。皇帝用于正式场合的礼服就往往用锦缎来制造。 Silk products are soft, comfortable and beautiful. In reference to quality and craft, it can be divided into many types. The weaving techniques had become very advanced in the Western Han Dynasty, and the silk gauze woven at that time could be as thin as the wings of a cicada. Both brocade and damask are luxurious silk products. Especially since the Qing Dynasty, the cloud brocade produced in Nanjing is dense and thick, with splendid patterns; some of them are even woven with golden threads, thus appearing more magnificent. The ceremonial costumes worn by emperors on formal occasions were often made of brocade and damask. 中国丝绸的图案题材一般是禽鸟、花卉以及表达各种 吉祥意义的图案。丝绸装饰可以在纺织的过程中织出各种 花纹，也可以在织好后再染色。中国印染丝绸的水平，长期居世界前列。汉代一处墓葬中发现的丝绸，印染的颜色有 20 多种，色彩均匀稳定，不易褪脱。此外，丝绸的装饰还有印花、刺绣和粘贴羽毛等。史书记载，唐代安乐公主有一条百鸟裙， 是用各种鸟的羽毛和丝线配在一起织成的，上面有百鸟的图案，并且，这条裙子的色彩还能随视角和光线的转换而产生变化。 Patterns on the silk of China are usually themed with birds, flowers and various designs bearing auspicious meanings. Such patterns 1 An imperial silk gown of the Qing Dynasty A piece of brocade with a cloud-shaped pattern1. 清代龙袍 2. 云锦 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 247can be woven into the silk, and silk can be dyed after it is woven. The dyeing of silk reached a very high level, leading the world for a long time. The silk found in a tomb of the Han Dynasty displays more than twenty colors, which are even and steady, not easily fading away. In addition, decoration for the silk can also include printing, embroidery and sticking feathers. According to history books, Princess Anle of the Tang Dynasty had a skirt woven with feathers and silk threads, on which there was a design of a hundred birds. The colors of this skirt can change upon changing the light or visual angle. 南京、苏州和杭州是中国丝绸的重要产地。 Nanjing, Suzhou and Hangzhou are important silk producing areas of China. 最迟在公元前 4 世纪， 中国的丝绸已经输入印度。 2,000 多年前， 汉代张骞打通了中国通往中亚和欧洲的丝绸之路， 中国丝绸大量进入西方，曾经风靡整个罗马帝国，一度与黄金等价。 1 世纪时， 一位罗马皇帝穿着丝绸的衣服去看戏，轰动了整个剧场。 大约在 6 世纪， 中国的养蚕业传入西方，中亚开始生产丝绸。 The silk of China was introduced into ancient India in the fourth century at the latest. More than 2,000 years ago, Zhang Qian, a famous diplomat of the Han Dynasty, opened up a Silk Road leading to Mid - Asia and Europe, and much silk was transported to the West. Silk became fashionable all over the Roman Empire, and was the equivalent of gold. It is said that during the first century AD, a Roman emperor went to a theater wearing silk, which made a great stir in the audience. In the sixth century or so, the sericulture of China was introduced into the West, and Mid -Asia began to produce silk. 1,000 多年来，丝绸之路不仅是古代丝绸 贸易的商路，而且是东西方之间政治、经济、 文化交流的重要桥梁。丝绸与陶瓷一道，成为中国传统的外销产品。 For centuries, the Silk Road has not only been a route for the silk trade in ancient times, but also an important bridge for political, economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Together with potteries, silk became the traditional exported goods of China. 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 248用丝、棉等各种彩线，在绸缎和布帛上凭借 一根细小钢针的上下穿刺运动，构成各种造型优 美的装饰图文，这就是中国古老的手工艺— —刺绣。至迟在两三千年前的商周时代，中国人已经开始在丝绢上刺绣了。人们欣赏丝绸和刺绣的美丽， 以至于后来在汉语中 “锦绣” 一词成为 “美丽”的同义语，中国人常常以“锦绣江山”来形容祖国美丽的国土。 Embroidery is a renowned traditional Chinese handicraft dating back more than 3,000 years. On a piece of silk or cloth, artisans embroider all kinds of beautiful pictures and patterns with threads of silk, wool or cotton. People appreciate the beauty of silk and embroidery so much that "jinxiu" (literally embroidery or brocade) has become synonymous with "beautiful," and the Chinese people often use this phrase to depict the beauty of their homeland. 虽然现代刺绣也可借助机器，但是传统手工刺绣仍然 以质朴、灵动的表现形式受到人们的钟爱。不同地域的传 统刺绣各具特色，其中最著名的苏绣、蜀绣、湘绣、粤绣，被称为中国的四大名绣。 Modern embroideriy can be manufactured by means of machinery, but traditional manual embroidery is still beloved by people because of its simple and inspirational expressive forms. Traditional embroideries vary from Embroidery刺绣 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 249place to place, the most famous of which originate in Jiangsu, Hunan, Guangdong and Sichuan provinces, respectively, and are called four best -known embroideries of China. 江苏苏绣自古以精细、素雅著称。它用来刺绣的 彩线非常细，针法也非常丰富。“双面绣”集中体现 了苏绣高超的技法，即在同一绣制过程中，绣出正反两面图像完全一样、两面都可供人欣赏的作品，堪称一绝。例如“双面绣”《猫》，不仅两面的猫形象相同，而且通过各种精巧针法，使猫身上毛茸茸的毛发形象逼真。 特别是眼睛， 要把一根绣花线分成几十份，用 20 多种颜色的线来进行精细刺绣，这样才能使猫眼发亮有神，栩栩如生。四川蜀绣用针工整，平齐光亮，丝路清晰，色彩艳丽明快，取材多数是花鸟虫鱼、民间吉语和传统纹饰等， 颇具喜庆色彩， 代表作有 《熊猫》和《芙蓉鲤鱼》等。湖南湘绣作品具有中国画的艺术特色，巧妙地将刺绣与中国传统的绘画、诗词、书法等融为一体。狮、虎、松鼠等也是湘绣常见的题材，曾有“绣花花生香，绣鸟能听声，绣虎能奔跑 , 绣人能传神”的美誉。俗话说：“苏绣猫，湘绣虎。”湘绣特有的“毛针”技法绣出的老虎刚劲有力，让人仿佛能够看到老虎健壮的肌肉和筋骨。 Suzhou embroidery, or Su xiu, has been famous for its delicacy and elegance. The colorful threads it uses are very thin, and its needle skill varies greatly. In particular, the "double -side embroidery," which shows precisely the same patterns on both sides of the product, is a concentrated embodiment of the great skill of Suzhou embroidery. For example, double -sided embroidery of a cat will not only present the same image of a cat on both sides, but also make vivid and lifelike the fluffy hair on the body of the cat by means of various needle techniques. Particularly, when the eyes are embroidered, one piece of thread has to be divided into tens of strands, and more than 20 colors are used. Only in this way can the eyes of the cat be bright and vivid. Sichuan embroidery, or Shu xiu, features standard needle skills, and its works are tidy with bright colors, showing clear purpose of thought. Its themes are often flowers, birds, fish and insects, as well as landscapes and human figures, permeated with a jubilant air. Its exemplary works include the "Pandas" and the "Hibiscus and Carps." Hunan embroidery, A Suzhou embroidery showing the image of the catA Hunan embroidery showing the image of the tiger A Sichuan embroidery showing the image of the panda2. 苏绣《猫》1. 湘绣《饮虎》 3. 蜀绣《熊猫》 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 250or Xiang xiu, has an artistic characteristic of Chinese painting, subtly combining traditional Chinese painting, poetry and calligraphy together. Hunan embroidery has lions, tigers and squirrels as its common themes, and a saying goes, "When a flower is embroidered, you can smell its fragrance; when a bird is embroidered, you can hear its song; when a tiger is embroidered, the tiger seems to be able to dash; and when a human figure is embroidered, the figure seems to come alive." As Suzhou embroidery excels at embroidering the cat, Hunan embroidery is perfect in depicting tigers. With its special needle skill, a tiger in Hunan embroidery is very vigorous, and a viewer seems to be able to see its powerful muscles and bones. 广东粤绣配色大胆自由， 常用红、 绿等对比鲜明的颜色， 色彩富丽夺目，整个构图显得很热闹。金银丝垫绣①是粤绣 中最具特色的技法之一， 它能使绣品上的形象富有立体感， 代表作有《百鸟朝凤》等。 Guangdong embroidery, or yue xiu, is bold in the match of colors, and often employs colors in sharp contrast, such red and green. As a result, the colors are eye -catching, and the pattern as a whole appears lively. Underlaid embroidery① with golden and silvery threads is one of the most characteristic features of Guangdong embroidery, making the image on an embroidery work appear tridimensional. The representative works of Guangdong embroidery include "A Hundred Birds Pay Homage to the Phoenix." 四大名绣之外，北京的京绣、温州的瓯绣、苗 族的苗绣等也都很有特色。 Apart from the above four types, embroideries in Beijing, Wenzhou and those by the Miao ethnic group are also very distinctive. A Guangdong embroidery with the theme "A Hundred Birds Pay Homage to the Phoenix" A Picture of Clams embroidered by Shen Shou of the Qing Dynasty1. 粤绣《百鸟朝凤》 2. 清代沈寿绣蛤蜊图小注解·Footnotes ① 垫绣：在要绣的物体下 垫上棉布等，这样绣出来的作 品有浮雕般的效果。 ① Underlaid embroidery: With the embroidery underlaid with a piece of cotton cloth. In this way, the embroidery work will have an effect of basso-relievo. 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 251 Lacquerware漆器 “漆器”是用漆涂在器物的表面上所制成的 器具。把漆涂在器物上的技法叫作“髹 （xiū） ”。 中国是世界上最早发现并使用天然漆的国家，长 期以来，漆器制造发展成为一种专门工艺并达到了很高的水平。 Lacquer ware refers to utensils painted with lacquer on the surfaces. China is the first country to find and use natural lacquer in the world; over a long period, the making of lacquer ware has developed into a special form of arts and crafts, attaining a very high level of expertise. 漆在漆器中是必不可少的，但却不能独立成 器， 而必须依附于某种载体。 这个载体俗称胎骨， 多为竹、木、麻、皮革等。为了美观，人们还在漆浆中调入不同的矿物质颜料和油料，一般是朱红色和黑色，以优美的图案在器物表面构成一个美丽的彩色世界。 Lacquer can be useful when it is applied to certain carriers, which are usually bamboo, wood, hemp and leather. For the sake of aesthetic purposes, various kinds of mineral paint and oil, usually vermilion and black, are mixed into lacquer to form beautiful patterns on utensil surfaces. 早期漆器一般在简单的木、竹胎上髹涂，可以防腐， 也可起到装饰的作用。后来，漆工艺不断发展，漆器的制 作工艺纷繁复杂， 其中雕漆、 螺钿等是较有代表性的技法。雕漆就是在器物的胎型上，涂上几十层乃至上百层漆，漆层厚度可以超过一公分，干燥后在上面雕刻出图案。在红漆上雕刻图案的剔红，又是雕漆的主流。螺钿是将贝壳的 Lacquer wares from the Han Dynasty A piece of shell-embedding lacquer ware1. 汉代漆器 2. 元代螺钿嵌漆器1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 252珠光层磨成薄片后，制成人物花草鸟兽等形 象，嵌入漆器预先雕成的凹形图案内，再涂上亮光漆，之后磨平抛光使螺钿片露出来，色彩艳丽的螺钿漆器就制成了。 Early lacquer wares were usually simple wooden and bamboo utensils, with lacquer painted on the surface to protect them from decay or as decoration. Later, the techniques of making of lacquer ware constantly developed and became increasingly complicated, and the representative skills include diaoqi (carved lacquer) and luodian (shell embedment). Diaoqi means to paint tens or even a hundred of layers of lacquer on a piece, with the lacquer as thick as one centimeter, and carve out designs on the lacquer after it is dried. The carving of red lacquer painting is the major form of diaoqi . In the course of luodian , the nacreous layer of a shell is shaped into the images of humans, plants, birds and animals after it is ground into a thin piece, and then is embedded into the hollow design carved on a lacquerware in advance. After that, polish lacquer is painted, and the surface surrounding the embedded shell is rubbed down and polished so that the shell is exposed. Then, a shell-embedding lacquer ware with bright colors is finished. 漆器轻薄美观，易于清洗，能隔热，耐腐蚀，在古代 社会中曾有过广泛的应用，饮食器、礼器、兵器、家具等， 几乎无所不包。 Lacquered utensils are light, thin and beautiful. They can be easily washed, and resist heat and decay. Lacquered utensils were widely used in ancient societies, including food utensils, ritual utensils, weapons and furniture. 中国漆工艺几千年的发展和成就，对全世界的漆器工 艺都产生了影响。各国制造漆器或用其他物质模仿漆器的 工艺，都借鉴了中国的漆器。 The development and achievements of lacquer techniques of China in the past thousands of years have influenced lacquer techniques all over the world, and the techniques of making lacquer ware or similar products using other materials have all learned from the lacquer ware of China to a certain extent. A piece of lacquer ware painted with red lacquer1. 清代剔红漆器1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 253景泰蓝也叫 “铜胎掐丝珐琅 （fàlánɡ） ①”。 是一种瓷铜结合的特种工艺。它的釉料色彩 艳丽，铜丝映出金属光泽，具有浑厚凝重、富丽典雅的艺术效果。 Cloisonn é or Jingtai Lan , also known as inlaid enamel①, is a special form of arts and crafts combining both china and copper. Its glaze features bright colors, and with its copper wires shedding metal luster, it has the artistic effect of profundity, dignity, splendor and elegance. 掐丝珐琅本是阿拉伯地区的传统工艺， 元代传入中国，开始在北京进行生产。明朝 景泰年间最为兴盛，而当时使用的釉料以蓝色为主，所以被称为景泰蓝。实际上，景泰蓝的釉色不仅有蓝色， 还有绿色、 白色、 红色、黑色等。 Inlaid enamel was originally a traditional technique in the Arabian area. It was introduced into China, first produced in Beijing. Cloisonn é production was most prosperous in the Jingtai Reign (1450 -1457 AD) of the Ming Dynasty, and the glaze used at that time was mainly blue, hence the product's name of Jingtai Lan . In fact, the colors of glaze of Jingtai Lan were not limited to blue; they could also be green, white, red, black, etc. 制作一件精美的景泰蓝器物，要经过十几道甚至几十 道工序。首先要把铜片打制成壶、瓶、盘、罐等所需要的 形状，再焊接起来，形成铜胎。然后用镊子夹起铜丝，沾上粘合剂， 在铜胎上拼出各种美丽的图案， 这叫作 “掐丝” 。高温烧制后，铜丝就牢牢地粘在铜胎上了。再用金属小铲景泰蓝 Jingtai Lan (Cloisonné) A cloisonn é objects 1. 景泰蓝器物 小注解·Footnotes ① 珐琅 ：用石英 、铅 、 锡等烧制成的像釉子的物质， 涂在铜质或银质器物上，经过烧制，能形成不同颜色的釉质表 面。 ① Enamel: Materials made of quartz, lead and tin after being baked, similar to glaze. Painted on copper or silvery objects and fired, it can form a glaze-like surface with different colors.1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 254把珐琅釉料填在图案中，这叫作“点蓝”。然后 放在高温炉中，经过 800 摄氏度的高温后，釉料就凝固成平整光滑的釉面。这个程序要重复好几次，才能使釉面和铜丝一样高。这样烧好之后，还要用木炭等细细打磨，再经镀金，一件景泰蓝制品才算完成了。 It requires about 30 processing methods to complete the cloisonn é . First, copper pieces are made into the shape required when producing a pot, a bottle or plate, and are then welded together to form the base. After that, brass wires are stuck to the copper base with adhesives to form various beautiful inlaid patterns. After being fired under a high temperature, the brass wires become firmly stuck to the base. Then, a small metal shovel is used to fill enamel glaze into the inlaid pattern. After this step is finished, the whole piece is put into a high-temperature stove to be baked at the temperature of 800 ℃ . In this way, the glaze will coagulate into a flat and smooth surface. This process must be repeated several times until the surface of the glaze is at the same level as the brass wires. After the firing work is finished, it is polished with charcoals until it is glossy, and coated in certain places with gold. Only then is a piece of cloisonn é finally complete. 为了表现形态多变的云、水、雾等，景泰蓝艺人们还 创造出了无丝点晕法，即拼成图案的铜丝高低不同，中间 填上不同的釉色，使这些釉色自然连接。经过烧制后，高丝露出而矮丝藏在釉下，使图画更加生动自然。 In order to depict changeable clouds, water and fog, cloisonn é craftsmen even invented a special method to inlay the brass wires at different levels, fill the hollow parts with glaze in various colors, and make the colors naturally link together. After being fired, the higher wires are exposed and the lower ones are hidden under the glaze, making the pattern more vivid and natural. 现在制作的景泰蓝一般都是陈设品，不作实用。多数 会配上一个雕刻精美的硬木底托，更显出景泰蓝雍容华贵 的风采。 Cloisonn é produced nowadays are usually decorational rather than functional. Most are matched with an exquisitely carved hardwood base board, accentuating the elegance of cloisonn é. 1 2 A wire inlay enamel bottles of the Qing Dynasty A wire inlay enamel angle cup of the Qing Dynasty1. 清代掐丝珐琅天鸡尊 2. 清代掐丝珐琅角端 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 255玉雕 Jade Carving 现代矿物学将玉分为两种：软玉和硬玉。中国所产大 多为软玉，硬度较低，适合雕琢。其中，洁白光润的新疆 和田玉最受中国人的喜爱。其他著名的玉石品种还有陕西的蓝田玉、河南的独山玉、辽宁的岫岩玉等。硬玉如翡翠主要产自云南。 但是古人的理解与现在有所不同， 他们认为，玉就是美丽的石头，因此中国古代玉器的材料种类很多，其中的一些并不属于今天的玉，如玛瑙、水晶等。 Modern mineralogy divides jade into two types: nephrite and jadeite. Jade yielded in China is mostly nephrite, which has less rigidity and is suitable for carving. In particular, Khotan jade is white and glossy, and is thus the favorite of Chinese people. Other famous types of jade include the Lantian Jade in Shaanxi, the Dushan jade in Henan and the Youyan jade in Liaoning. Jadeite, such as emerald, is mainly produced in Yunnan. Ancient Chinese people had a different view from today, holding that jade was just a beautiful stone. So the jade utensils of ancient China had a wide range of raw materials, some of which did not belong to today's category of jade, such as agate and crystal, etc. 中国有十分独特的玉文化。早在 2,000 多年前，人们 就已经把玉和君子的美德联系起来，认为玉纯净、柔和， 纹理自然，能够代表仁慈、道义、礼仪、智慧等品质。君子应该佩戴美玉，以时刻提醒自己保持良好的操守。古人还认为，天然的玉石凝结了天地的精华， 可以美容、养生，还可以避邪， A jade phoenix unearthed from the tomb of Lady Hao of the Shang Dynasty A jade lying sheep of the Han Dynasty1. 商代妇好墓出土的玉凤 2. 汉代玉卧羊 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 256乃至使人不朽。所以在古代中国，贵族死后不仅用大量的 玉来陪葬，甚至还有穿用玉片做成的衣服的习俗。 China has a very unique jade culture. As early as more than 2,000 years ago, people related jade to such virtues as purity, mildness and naturalness that could likewise stand for benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom. A gentleman would wear beautiful jade to remind himself to maintain integrity always. Ancient Chinese also held that a natural piece of jade was a coagulation of the quintessence of nature, and could be used to keep a person's facial appearance young, improve his health, thwart wicked things, and even prevent the dead body of a person from decaying. In ancient China, therefore, plenty of jade was buried along with the body of an aristocrat after his death, and some corpses even wore clothes made of jade. 从商周经秦汉明清一直到现代，佩戴和摆设玉器已经 成为中国人的普遍风尚。现在，人们选购一件玉器，有的 是出于装饰的喜好，有的用来表示对君子美德的向 往，还有一些人， 则是基于一种驱灾辟邪的心理。 From the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Qin, Han, Ming and Qing Dynasties, and even into today, wearing and displaying jade utensils indoors has become a universal vogue 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 257of the Chinese people. Jade utensils are used as ornaments, symbols of virtues or objects to avoid evil spirits. 从工艺的角度看，把玉材料制作成 各种器物，是中国持续时间最长的传统 工艺。出土的四五千年前的玉龙等玉器说明，那时中国的玉雕已经达到了极高的艺术水准。一件出色的玉雕作品除了雕琢技术精湛外，制作者根据材料设计造型的构思也相当重要。按照玉石原有的颜色和纹路，进行精心设计，最后创造成造型和颜色都适合原有玉材的作品，这叫作 “俏色玉” 。 俏色玉作品自然、 巧妙，艺术价值极高。例如，在河南一处距今 3,000 多年的商代遗址中出土的一件小玉鳖 （biē） ，玉料 本身并不纯净，呈现出黑色和灰白色，但工匠把它设计并琢磨成了一只背甲为黑色， 头和脖子、 腹部为灰白色的小鳖，并且巧妙地将玉料上的两个小黑点处理成鳖的两只眼睛，便达到了顺其自然，巧夺天工的效果。 In terms of craftsmanship, the craft of jade is a traditional technique with the longest establishment in China. Unearthed jade utensils, such as the jade dragon which can date back to 4,000 or 5,000 years ago, indicate that the jade carving of China had reached a fairly artistic level at that time. A wonderful jade carving not only requires considerable craftsmanship, but the design in reference to the particular quality and shape of the material. In the process, the craftsman is supposed to make an elaborate design in reference to the original color and texture of the jade, and the final shape and color should be consistent with the raw material. Such a work looks natural and artful, thus creating an extremely high value. For example, a small - sized jade tortoise excavated in the relic site of the Shang Dynasty in Henan, which can date back to more than 3,000 years ago, is a carving of impure raw material, showing black and hoar colors. Therefore, the craftsman designed and ground it into a small tortoise with black back and hoar head, neck and belly. More ingeniously, two black points on the raw material were designed to be two eyes of the tortoise. It is truly a superb craftsmanship excelling nature. 　 An agate ox-head cup of the Tang Dynasty A huge jade pot of the Yuan Dynasty A jade tortoise of the Shang Dynasty, which is a masterpiece that ingeniously exploits the flaws of the raw material1. 唐代玛瑙牛首杯 2. 元代渎山大玉海 3. 商代俏色玉鳖3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 258A paper cut Rooster Paper cut products of Shaanxi A paper-cut about double happiness1. 公鸡剪纸 2. 陕西剪纸 3.“囍”字剪纸剪纸 Papercutting 中国的剪纸艺术已有 2,000 多年的历史。宋 代还有人以剪纸为业，技艺高超的甚至能在袖子 里剪出精美的文字和花朵。 Papercutting of China has a history of more than 2,000 years, becoming a trade in the Song Dynasty; those with great skill are even able to cut exquisite Chinese characters and flowers in sleeves. 剪纸的制作有两种：一种是用剪刀剪的；另 一种是用刻刀刻的。因为它们的艺术特点在形式 上非常接近，所以被统称为“剪纸”。要在纸上剪或刻出画面，就必须将纸镂空，而线条又必须相互连接，这样，在镂空的基础上便出现了两种效果：或者刻画的图形线条相连；或者相反，图案线条是空的，而衬纸连成一片。前者叫作“阳刻”，后者叫作“阴刻”。 Papercutting can be divided into two types: One uses scissors, and the other uses cutters. Because they have very similar artistic characteristics, they are both called "papercutting." In cutting out a pattern on a piece of paper, the paper must be stenciled, and the lines are expected to connect with each other. Such a stencil processing results in two kinds of effects: either with the lines of the pattern linking with each other, or the lines of the pattern being vacant spaces, with the left paper still in a single piece. The former is known as "yang ke" and the latter "yin ke." 特定的工具和原材料决定了剪纸造型的特点。它不可 能像绘画那样细微地描绘事物，而必须在整体上突出形象 的轮廓特征，并强调传神。如窗花剪纸《公鸡》，仅仅在外轮廓上以公鸡高昂的鸡冠、 翘起的尾毛、 强有力的爪子， 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 259便将这只公鸡健壮、威武的姿态表现出来。公鸡身上不多 的几处点、线、锯齿纹，则恰到好处地表现了公鸡羽毛的质感。 Specific tools and raw materials determine the shaping traits of paper cuts. It cannot depict things in detail as painting does; instead, it is meant to highlight the vivid contour characteristics as a whole, and lay an emphasis on the expression of spiritual meanings. For example, a window decoration paper cut themed with a rooster can present the vigorous and martial posture of the rooster only by means of its contour such as its highly raised comb, turnup tail and powerful claws. And a few points, lines and sawtooth patterns on the body of the rooster precisely show the tactile feeling of its feathers. 剪纸在构图上多采取平面处理，避免层次重 叠。制作时常采用对称的结构，取一张纸对折， 剪出图案的一半， 打开就是一张完整对称的剪纸。剪纸所用的色纸，以单色为主，如大红、橙、黄、绿等。也有的是先剪后染色。还有一些剪纸为了适应特殊的需要，追求富丽堂皇，甚至使用金银 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 260箔纸（用金银制成的薄片 或涂上金粉、银粉的纸片）刻 制。 Papercutting mostly employs plane designs and avoids the overlap of layers. Paper cuts often adopt symmetrical structures. In the process, a piece of paper is folded back and one half of the pattern is cut out. When it is unfolded, a complete paper cut with two symmetrical halves appears. Papercutting mainly makes use of mono -colored paper, such as scarlet, orange, yellow and green, and sometimes it is dyed after the cutting. In some cases, to meet a special requirement and pursue magnificence, thin pieces made of gold and silver or paper sparkled with golden and silvery powder are used. 剪纸由民间产生，并在民间有着广泛的用途。现在一 般是在节日及婚庆场合，将各种色彩鲜艳、图案喜庆的剪 纸拿来装点家居物品。比如，中国人过年时喜欢在窗户上贴用红纸剪成的窗花，结婚时贴“囍”字等。此外，剪纸还常常被当作刺绣的底稿，在陶瓷、彩灯和扇面装饰等工艺上也有巧妙的应用。 Papercutting is a folk craft, and paper cuts have a wide range of uses in folk circles. Now, they are usually celebrative patterns in various colors, used to decorate furniture and utensils on the occasion of festivals and weddings. For example, Chinese people like to cut window decorations with red paper showing the design of " 囍 " (double happiness) at a wedding. In addition, paper cuts are often used as a model in embroidery, and they have their wonderful use in the technique of pottery, lanterns and fan decoration. 中国较有名的剪纸有陕西的窗花、河北蔚县的戏曲人 物以及南方少数民族的绣花底样等。 Famous paper cuts in China include the window decorations in Shaanxi, the operatic figures in Yuxian County, Hebei and the models for embroidery among the minority ethnic groups in the south. A Chinese opera characters of paper- cutting of Yuxian, Hebei1. 河北蔚县戏曲人物剪纸 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 261 Chinese Knotting中国结 编制绳结最初是出于生产生活的需要。它既是一种劳 动技能，比如捆扎物品、编结渔网等。也是一种辅助记忆 的手段，在没有文字之前，人们用不同大小、形状的绳结来代表不同的事情。 At the beginning, the practice of tying knots proceeded from production and daily life needs. The tying of knots was a laboring skill, such as in tying objects and weaving fishing nets; meanwhile, it was a method for assisting memory. Before the invention of characters or letters, people represented different things using knots of varying sizes and shapes. 古代中国绳结技法的发达与绳结在人们日常生活中的 广泛应用有着直接的关系。中国的传统服装主要靠用衣带 打结的方式来系束，中国社会一直流行佩戴玉饰的习尚，这都促进了绳结技艺的发展。此外，很多日用品如窗帘、床帐、笛箫、香袋、烟袋、扇子等，或用绳结缀连装饰，或用绳结编制物保管盛放。因此，在古代，打中国结还是妇女要掌握的一项重要技艺，甚至还形成了与此相关的一些特定风俗，比如在端午节前，妇女要用五彩丝线编结出许多“长命缕”，在节日那天分赠给亲戚朋友，让大家系在手臂上，据说能辟邪、防病。 The well -developed knotting skills of ancient China were directly related to the extensive use of knots in people's daily life. Traditional Chinese costumes are mainly tied with belts, and the wearing of jade ornaments has been popular in the Chinese society; these two have also helped improve the development of knotting skills. In addition, many articles of everyday use, such as window curtains, bed curtains, flutes, sachets, tobacco bags and fans, have to be fixed or decorated with knots, or kept contained with knots. Therefore, Chinese knotting was an important skill that Chinese women were required to grasp in ancient times, and some related customs were even formed. For example, before the Duanwu Festival, women knitted many "longevity plaits" with five -colored threads, and presented them to relatives and friends Chinese knots1. 中国结 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 262on the day of the Festival. It is said that such plaits tied to one's wrists could prevent wicked things and diseases. 中国结与世界其他民族绳结的主要区别在于：中国结 从头到尾都是用一根线编制的；中国结的结构紧密复杂， 不易松散，实用功能很强；大多数中国结的形状都左右对称 、正反面对称，符合中国传统装饰的习惯和审美观念； 多种基本结的编法可以相互组合，具有很强的变化性和装饰性。 Chinese knotting is different from the knotting methods of other ethnic groups mainly in the following aspects: Chinese knots are woven with one single strand; they are tight and complicated in structure, do not easily become loose, and are very practical in use. Most Chinese - style knots are symmetrical both with left and right parts and with front and reverse sides, conforming to the traditional Chinese habit and aesthetic view of decoration; and the weaving methods of many basic knots can be combined together to showcase strong changeability and decorativeness. 中国结的图案样式很多，如同心结、盘长结、万字结、 梅花结等。这些图案不仅精巧美观，而且大多具有吉祥喜 庆的含义， 如同心结。 同心结是两股彩绳交相盘绕的形态。古时的婚礼上，新郎新娘在很多程序上都要用到同心结。同心结也常用来表示爱情， 相传南齐美女苏小小乘车出行，在西湖边遇到心爱的男子，她作诗表达心意，其中一句是：“何处结同心？” Chinese knots have a wide range of patterns, including truelove knots, panchang knots, wanzi knots and wintersweet knots. These patterns are not only exquisite and beautiful, but also carry auspicious and celebrative meanings. One example is truelove knots, which use two colored strands tangled together. In the weddings of ancient times, truelove knots were used in many ceremonies between bride and bridegroom. Truelove knots are often used to express love. It is said that Su Xiaoxiao, a beauty of the Qi Dynasty (479 -502 AD), once came across a man and fell in love with him while taking a ride outdoors. She wrote a poem to express her feelings, writing, "Where to make our truelove knots?" 20 世纪八九十年代，中国结在中国和海外华人社会广 为流行，成为极富中国文化特征的工艺品。 In the 1980s and 1990s, Chinese knots were in vogue both in China and among overseas Chinese, thus becoming craftworks full of the characteristic of Chinese culture. A panchang knot A truelove knot1. 盘长结 2. 同心结1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 263蜡染、扎染和蓝印花布 Batik, Tie-Dye and Blue Print 对于纺织物的加工，中国有种种复杂的技术，大致可 分为两大类：一种是在织物的织造过程中完成，即用不同 颜色的线织出美丽的花纹；另一种包括刺绣、 用颜料绘画、印染等，都是在织物成品上通过另外的手段完成的。 In China, techniques for processing textiles are varied and complicated, and they can be divided roughly into two types: One is to be finished in the weaving course of textiles, that is, weaving beautiful patterns with threads in different colors; and the other include embroidery, painting with pigment, printing and dye, all of which are done by other means on finished textiles. 蜡染、 扎染制品和蓝印花布都是采集天然植物的蓝色， 用传统染色方法制作出来的，历史悠久，并且现在还在生 产和使用，极富中国民间特色。 Batik, tie -dye products and blue print cloth are produced in traditional dyeing methods with blue pigment collected from natural plants. They have a long history, and are still in use today, full of Chinese folk characteristics. 蜡染的主要方法是：先 在白布上画好花鸟虫鱼或几 何图案，然后用蜡刀把熔化了的蜡液填在画好的花纹上，再把布放入深蓝色的液体中浸染。颜色达到一定的深度后，把布取出晾干，再用水煮脱蜡，就成了蓝底白花的蜡染布。蜡性较脆，容易产生裂纹，染料渗入裂缝后，A pillow with blue print cloth of Nantong, Jiangsu1. 南通蓝印花布枕头 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 264印成的花纹中往往产生一丝丝很细的冰裂纹，有一种意想 不到的装饰效果。蜡染有单色染和复色染两种。有的民族还用四五种颜色套色印染，色彩自然而丰富。蜡染技术在西南民间很流行。许多民族喜欢用蜡染布做衣裙、被面、头巾等。 For making a piece of batik, the principal method is first to draw some designs or contours of images of a flower, bird, fish or insect on a piece of white cloth, use a small scraper to scoop melted wax and fill in all those designs or contours before dipping the cloth into an indigo dye bath. When the shade reaches a certain degree, the cloth is taken out and dried in the shade. Finally, it is put into boiling water to melt away the wax. What you are left with is a piece of batik with a blue background and white designs or pictures. Since wax is easy to crack and indigo liquid tends to seep through the fine cracks when a piece of such cloth is dyed, it leaves something like a fishnet effect on the cloth. This results in an unexpected decorative effect. Batik can be dyed with one or more colors. Some ethnic peoples like to adopt four or five colors, which look natural and even more gorgeous. Batik is a popular folk practice in southwest China, and people of many ethnic groups like to make clothes, quit covers and headscarves with batik. 扎染也是历史悠久的传统印染工艺。把成匹的织物或 成品衣裙，按事先的设计把某部分用线系住、缝紧，染后A piece of tie-dye cloth A piece of batik1. 扎染布 2. 云南蜡染布 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 265晒干，再剪去线结，就自然形成一定 的图案。 Tie-dye is also a traditional print and dye technique with a long history. In the course of tie -dye, certain parts of a whole piece of textile or clothes are tied and sewn in reference to the design in advance, then dyed and dried in the sun. After the tying threads are removed, certain patterns are formed naturally. 蓝印花布是一种蓝白两色的花 布。蓝印花布的制作方法是：在厚纸 板上刻好花纹，做成“花版”。把花版放在白布上，然后把用石灰、豆粉和水调成的防染粉浆刮入花纹空隙，印在布面上， 再放入蓝色染液中浸染，晾干以后，刮去防染浆，就成了蓝白两色的花布。蓝印花布色泽稳定，洗后也不会褪色。长期以来，因为花纹 清新、色彩沉着朴素而受到人们的喜爱。蓝印花布在中国南北都有生产，江苏南通地区自古以来棉纺织业发达，那里的蓝印花布闻名全国。 Blue print is basically white -and-blue cloth. In the making of blue print, one first carves a piece of thick cardboard into a "paper cut" with certain designs. Then, he covers a piece of white cloth with the paper cut, spreads a layer of a mixture of lime, bean powder and water into the interstice of the pattern and presses them on the surface of the cloth, then dips the cloth in an indigo dye bath. After being dried in the shade, the layer of the mixture is scraped off and there is a finished blue print with two colors, either a white background with blue designs or a blue background with white designs. The colors of blue print are steady and do not fade off in washing. For long, blue print has been popular because of its fresh patterns and steady and simple colors. Blue print cloth is produced both in north and south China; the cotton textile industry in the Nantong area of Jiangsu has been well developed since ancient times, and the blue print produced there is renowned all over the country.2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 266Micro Carving微雕 微雕，是各种细微雕刻的统称，是集绘画、书法、雕 刻于一体的艺术形式。其特点就是刀刻而成，一般需要借 助放大设备才能观赏。 它以微小、 神秘、 新颖、 奇特而著称。 Micro carvings are artistic forms that combine painting, calligraphy and carving; made with knives, they usually need to be appreciated by means of magnifying instruments. They are famous for their tiny sizes, mystery, novelty and peculiarity. 据记载，唐朝曾有人在一支毛笔的中间部分刻画出描 写军人生活的组图。画中人马、亭台、树木清晰可见，每 一画面还配刻从军诗两句。宋朝有一个和尚，能写半个芝麻粒大的楷书字。明末著名核雕艺人王叔远曾在一个核桃上雕出北宋大诗人苏东坡和朋友以及仆人乘船游赤壁（地名）的种种情形，至今令人神往。到了清代，微雕艺术出现了不少旷世佳作。现在台北故宫博物院藏有一件精美的微雕作品，是清代陈祖章雕刻的橄榄核小舟，所展现的情境与王叔远的作品有异曲同工之妙。 这枚橄榄核长 3.4 厘米，宽、高各约 1.5 厘米。雕刻家用橄榄核天然的弧线外形作为船底与船篷，船舱两面都雕刻有精美的小窗子，有的小窗子还可以推开。船舱里有桌子，上面放着碗、杯子等，一人坐在桌旁，而坐在窗前的就是苏东坡。此外，船上还有仆人、船夫等，在这个小小的橄榄核上，一共雕刻了 8个人，细小如同米粒。并且，船底还刻着苏东坡的文章《后赤壁赋》，全文 300 多字。从这件作品，我们可以直观地感受到古代微雕艺术家的精湛技艺。 According to literature, somebody of the Tang Dynasty once cut a set of pictures depicting the life of soldiery on the middle part of a brush pen; in the pictures, human figures, horses, pavilions, platforms 1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 267and trees were clearly shown, and each picture was matched with two lines describing life in the army. A Buddhist monk of the Song Dynasty was able to write regular scripts as small as half a sesame seed in size. Also according to literature, Wang Shuyuan, a famous micro carving artist of the late Ming Dynasty, once cut on a walnut a scene that Su Dongpo, a great poet of the Song Dynasty, his friends and servants took a ship to go sightseeing in Chibi. This masterpiece still lights people's imagination even today. In the Qing Dynasty, a number of micro carving masterpieces were created. Now, the Imperial Palace Museum of Taibei houses an exquisite micro carving of a boat carved on an olive nut by Chen Zuzhang of the Qing Dynasty, and the work depicts the same wonderful atmosphere as that of Wang Shuyuan. This olive nut is 3.4 centimeters long, about 1.5 centimeters wide and about 1.5 centimeters wide. The carver used the natural arc shape of the olive as the bottom and roof of the boat, exquisite windows are carved on both sides of the cabin, and some windows can even be opened. Inside the cabin there is a table, and on the table are placed some bowls and cups. One man is sitting at the table, and another man sitting by a window is Su Dongpo. In addition, there are also servants and a boatman. On this small olive nut eight human figures are cut, which are as small as rice granules. Moreover, on the bottom of the boat is carved Su Dongpo's essay The Second Essay on Chibi, totaling more than three hundred Chinese characters. From this work we can visually perceive the skillful handiwork of ancient micro carving artists. 微雕作品固然要小，但却要于微小中见大气象。无论 立体微雕还是平面微雕，一般都需要雕刻者具备书画家的 素养。小而不失艺术魅力，才最难能可贵。 Small sizes are an important standard for micro carvings, of course; but no matter whether it is tri -dimensional or plane micro carving, it must reveal grandeur despite its tininess, and the carver must be qualified with the skills of a calligrapher and a painter. Only the very small and artistically attractive micro carving product can be viewed as precious.The micro carvings "auspicious dragon" by Li Qici The micro carvings “the giant panda” by Cheng Fengxian The olive nut boat, a micro carving by Chen Zuzhang housed by the Imperial Palace Museum of Taibei1. 李期慈微雕作品《祥龙》 2. 陈逢显微雕作品《大熊猫》 3. 台北故宫博物院收藏清代雕刻家 陈祖章的“微雕橄榄核舟” 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 268Fan扇子 中国的扇子起源很早，扇子的功能也比现在要复杂， 它可分为两大类：一是消暑纳凉的实用扇；一是用以表示 人物权威、地位的仪仗扇。实用的扇子扇柄较短，便于人们摇摆，或者是在不想让别人看到自己的脸面时用来遮挡一下。而仪仗扇则有长长的扇柄，人们可以将它高高地举起来。 The fan of China date back to very early times, when the functions of fan were more complicated than at present. They could be roughly divided into two types: practical fans to relieve summer heat and ceremonial fans to indicate authority and status. Fans for practical use have shorter handles for convenience, or to shield the holder's face from the sight of others; while ceremonial fans had long handles so that they could be elevated highly. 从夏商至汉、唐、明、清的几千年间，皇帝及达官贵 人所在的场所，多用成对的仪仗扇来表示自己高贵的社会 地位，从历代人物画像和清代照片中都可以看到立在主人身边举着长柄扇的侍从。在清代和民国年间，民间在结婚和发丧等场合有时也使用仪仗扇。 For thousands of years from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties to the Tang, Ming and Qing Dynasties, pairs of ceremonial fans were often used in the presence of emperors and other dignitaries to signify their high status, and in the portraits and pictures of people from all past generations we can see servants standing beside their masters to hold fans with long handles. In the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, ceremonial fans were also sometimes used at weddings and funerals. 实用扇出现在商代，是长方形的，用羽毛或竹子、芦 苇等制成。此后，扇子的形状、材质和装饰形式不断丰富。 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 269A round fan A folding paper fan A sandal fanThe ceremonial fan of ancient kings and emperors1. 团扇 3. 纸折扇 4. 檀香扇2. 古代帝王用的仪仗扇（唐阎立本 《步辇图》局部汉代出现的圆形对称的团扇历代沿袭，成为中国传 统风格的扇形， 并由此演化出长圆、 扁圆、 梅花形、葵花形等扇形。 折扇在唐朝由日本、 朝鲜传入中国。明代，全国已有很多地区制作折扇。现在，人们生活中最常见的扇子仍然是折扇，以杭州生产的最为著名。 Fans for practical use appeared in the Shang Dynasty; they were rectangular in shape and were made of feather, bamboo or reeds. After that, the shapes, materials and decorative forms of fans changed constantly. The style of round symmetrical fans emerged in the Han Dynasty, and was carried down through generations. It became the traditional form of fans in China, later evolving into fans with shapes long and round, flat and round, plum -blossom -shaped and sunflower -shaped. Folding fans were introduced from Japan and Korea into China in the Tang Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, folding fans began to be produced in many regions of China. Now, the most commonly seen fans in daily life are still of the folding variety, and the best-known are those made in Hangzhou. 制作团扇、折扇的材料一般是纸、竹、木、蒲葵、丝 绢等。也有使用兽骨、象牙、檀香木等较贵重材料的。在 扇面上绘画、 书写文字的风气在魏晋南北朝时已相当普遍，这不仅美化了扇面，而且人们也常以手持名人书写或绘画的扇子，来表示自己高尚的文化修养。 Round and folding fans are usually made of paper, bamboo, wood, fan palm leaves, silk and so on, and some are made of rare materials such as animal bones, ivory and sandal. The practice of painting pictures and writing Chinese characters on fans had been rather popular as early as in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties period. Such paintings and calligraphic scripts are not only used to beautify the fans, but people often hold fans with calligraphic scripts or paintings by celebrities to indicate their high cultural achievements. 在电风扇、空调已很普及的今天，团扇、折扇作为富 有民族特色的传统手工艺品，仍受到人们的喜爱。 Today, electric fans and air -conditioners have been widely used, but round and folding fans as traditional arts and crafts full of national characteristics are still popular among the people. 3 4 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 270A human figure kite A dragon kiteA swallow kite Shandong Weifang international kite festival2. 人物风筝1. 沙燕风筝 4. 山东潍坊国际风筝节风筝 Kite 风筝， 也叫纸鸢 （yuān） 、鹞（yào） 子。 据说， 在 2,000 多年前的战国时期，哲学家墨子花费三年的时间，用竹片 和木头做出一只会飞的小鸟。巧匠鲁班继承了这门技术，他做出的木鸟可以飞翔三天。 It is said that in the Warring States Period more than 2,000 years ago, a philosopher named Mozi spent three years making a flying bird with bamboo and wood, and Lu Ban, a well -known ingenious carpenter, carried down this technique, and the wooden bird he made could fly for three days. 关于风筝真正的起源，民俗学家认为，可能是古人为 了怀念已故的亲友，他们在清明节放飞风筝，以寄托自己的 思念。风筝最初的实用功能，多在于军事。据记载，唐代曾有一位将军被困城中，他命人做了一架很大的纸风筝，将求救信藏在里面。 风筝放飞成功， 援军及时到达， 取得了胜利。唐代还出现了模仿动植物形状的象形风筝和带响声的风筝，风筝的主要功能转向娱乐。五代时，李邺将一种类似竹笛的发音装置安在风筝上， 能够产生更为悠扬的乐声。 宋元时期，风筝流传到西藏、云南和北方少数民族地区。 For the real origin of kite, experts on folklore hold that they might be invented when the ancient people flew kites on the Pure Brightness Festival to commemorate their dead relatives and friends. Kites were mostly used in military affairs in their early stage. According to literature, a general of the Tang Dynasty was once besieged in a town. He ordered people to make a huge paper kite and hide a letter for help inside. When the kite was successfully flown, reinforcements arrived in time for them to win the battle. Also in the Tang Dynasty, kites imitating the shapes of animals and plants and those emitting sounds emerged, and the major function of kite turned to entertainment. During the Five Dynasty Period (907 -960 AD), a man named Li Ye placed a flute -like device on the kite to make more melodious sounds. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, kites were introduced into Tibet, Yunnan and northern China inhabited by ethnic minorities. 3. 龙形风筝 1 2 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 271北京、天津、江苏南通和广东阳江等地，是中国著名 的风筝产地。制作风筝，要先用竹条捆扎风筝的骨架，再 把纸或绢糊在骨架上。制作风筝需要十分精巧的技艺，放飞风筝也要有独到的技术，这样才能使风筝在空中自由平稳地飞翔。 手艺高超的民间艺人可以扎制出各种人物、 动物、吉祥纹样造型的风筝。动物类风筝放飞时有较高的要求，如蜈蚣风筝，要求放上天后头能昂起来；龙形风筝要能左右来回游动；老鹰风筝要能盘旋等。 The renowned places producing kites in China today are Beijing, Tianjin, Nantong of Jiangsu Province and Yangjiang of Guangdong Province. In the process of making a kite, a frame is first made with bamboo strips, and is then covered with paper or silk. The making of kites requires considerable skill, so dose kit -flying; only in this way can kites fly freely and steadily in the sky. Folk craftsmen with great skill can make kites in the shape of human figures, animal or auspicious designs. For example, a kite imitating the shape of a centipede is supposed to raise its head up when it flies in the sky, a dragon -shaped kite should be able to move to and fro, and a kite in the shape of an eagle is expected to hover. 中国人喜欢春天在田野开阔地放风筝，既呼吸了新鲜 空气，锻炼了身体，又可以愉悦心情。中医 还认为，放风筝时仰面奔走，对眼睛和身体健康都有好处。放风筝不仅是有益于身心健康的体育运动和有趣的游戏，精美的风筝挂在墙壁上， 本身也是一件赏心悦目的工艺品。 Chinese people like to fly kite in open fields in the spring, for they can breathe fresh air, exercise their bodies and lighten their hearts. Traditional Chinese medicine even holds that to walk with the face upwards when flying a kite is beneficial both to the eyes and the body. While the act of flying a kite is a physically and psychologically beneficial sport and an interesting game, hanging a kite on a wall for decoration is a piece of craftwork that pleases both the eye and the mind. 近年来，山东潍坊每年都要举行盛大的 国际风筝节。 In recent years, a large -scaled international kite festival has been held annually in Weifang of Shandong Province.　 　 3 4 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 272在古代中国， 笔、 墨、 纸、砚是人们写字作画时 不可缺少的文具，宋代开始称之为“文房（中国人指专门用来读书写作的房间）四宝” 。 虽然它们都是实用的文具，但是因为制作精美，往往兼有工艺品、 收藏品的特性。 中国的笔、 墨、 纸、砚各有丰富的品种， 其中最著名的是湖笔、 徽墨、宣纸和端砚。 In ancient China, brush pens, Chinese ink, paper and ink stone were four necessary tools in writing or painting. In the Song Dynasty, they began to be called "four treasures of study." They are stationary for practical uses, but as exquisite products, they can often be viewed as craftworks and listed into the collection. The "four treasures of study" have a great number of varieties, and the best -known ones are Chinese brush of Huzhou, ink stick of Anhui, paper of Xuancheng and ink stone of Duanzhou. 毛笔在文房四宝中历史最为悠久，制造毛笔的原料主 要是竹管和兽毛。兽毛以羊毛、兔毛、黄鼠狼毛最为常见， 分别叫作“羊毫（笔）”“兔毫（笔）”“狼毫（笔）”。浙江湖州一带制作的毛笔选毛纯净，笔头圆浑匀称，写起字来富韧性、有弹力。 Brush pens have the longest history among the "four treasures of study," and are made primarily of small bamboo pipes and hair from beasts. Those made of the hair of goats, hares and weasels are most commonly seen, and are respectively called "yanghao" (goats' hair), "tuhao" (hares' hair) and "langhao" (weasels' hair). Brush pens manufactured in Huzhou of Zhejiang Province are made of carefully 文房四宝 Four Treasures of Study Brush pens made of weasels' hair Ink sticks produced in Anhui Xuan paper1. 狼毫笔 2. 徽墨 3. 宣纸制作1 工艺美术篇 Arts and Crafts 273selected hair, and the tips of the pens are perfectly round and even, therefore, they are flexible and springy in use. 制墨一般以松烟为主要原料。松烟墨的制法是将松木 点燃，又不让它完全燃烧，这时就产生黑色烟尘，冷却后 就成了极细的黑粉，可以用来做墨。安徽歙 （Shè） 县等地 制作的徽墨在唐宋时已享盛名，这里拥有优质的松林和泉水，是制墨的上好原料。徽墨质地坚硬，气味芬芳，写字润滑不涩。 Chinese ink sticks are typically made of the soot of pines. When producing pine soot ink, pine wood is lit but prevented from fully burning. In this way it will emit black soot, which later turns into very tiny black powder after it cools down. The ink sticks produced in Shexian County of Anhui Province have enjoyed a good reputation since the Tang and Song Dynasties. The top quality pine wood and spring water 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 274in this area provide the best raw materials for the production of Chinese ink sticks. The ink stick of Anhui is hard and emits fragrance, and feels smooth in writing. 宣纸出产于安徽泾县等地。宣 纸具有洁白、细腻、均匀、柔软、 经久不变色等特点。在用毛笔书写绘画时，它吸墨功能好，还不易被损坏。宣纸作为书画材料，比丝绢更耐老化，现今故宫博物院珍藏的唐代画家韩滉 （Hán Huànɡ） 的《五牛图》等，都是画在宣 纸上的，宣纸独享“纸寿千年”的美誉是当之无愧的。 Xuan paper is produced in Jingxian County of Anhui and other places. Xuan paper is white, refined, even, soft, resilient and absorbent, and does not change in color. As the material of writing and painting, Xuan paper is more age -resistant than silk and can be preserved for a long time without fading in color. Many ancient calligraphic works and traditional Chinese paintings, including the Five Oxen painted by Han Huang of the Tang Dynasty and housed by the Imperial Palace Museum of Beijing, have been painted on Xuan paper. It deserves its reputation of "endurance for thousands of years." 砚是磨墨的工具。制砚的材料有玉石、生漆、陶、瓷、 石、铜、铁等，最常见的是石砚。中国有四大名砚之说， 其中的端砚、歙砚、洮砚都是石砚，只有澄泥砚属于陶砚。端砚出产于广东肇庆 （Zhàoqìnɡ） ，石纹丰富，摸起来有 玉的温润质感，且具备不损笔毫、墨汁不易干燥等特点。歙砚产于安徽歙县一带，造型优美大方。 As tools for grinding ink sticks, ink stones are made of jade, raw lacquer, pottery, stones, copper, iron and so on, and mainly of stones. In China, there are four most famous kinds of ink stones, namely Duan ink stones, She ink stones, Tao ink stones, and Chengni ink stones. The former three are made of stones and the last is made of pottery. Duan ink stones are produced in Zhaoqing, Guangdong Province. They have abundant textures, feel warm and moist like jade, and do not harm the hair of brush pens; and the ink ground with them does not easily dry up. She ink stones are produced in Shexian County, Anhui, appearing beautiful and elegant in shape. Duan ink stones1. 端砚1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 275 民族篇 275民族篇民族篇 275文物篇 Cultural Relics 秦始皇陵兵马俑 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 276中国历史悠久，留存下来的文物 浩如烟海，其中的精华文物具有特别 重要的历史、艺术和科学价值。长期以来，它们以立体形象的语言，培育并表现着中国人的审美意识。与抽象的文献资料相比，它们所反映的历史更直观、更富有吸引力。 China has a long history, and myriads of ancient cultural relics, among which the best have especially important historical, artistic and scientific value. For ages, they have cultivated and represented the aesthetic consciousness of the Chinese people; compared with literature in writing, the history that they reflect is more visual and more attractive. 这里择取了玉石、青铜、陶瓷、纺织品、金银器、象 牙骨角以及书画中具有典型代表意义的几件文物。希望能 从这些文物上看到更为生动的历史，感悟中华文明的发展历程，体味东方艺术的文化追求。 Here, some representative cultural relics are selected, including jade and stones, bronze, pottery, textiles, golden and silvery utensils, ivory, bones, paintings and calligraphic works. From these cultural relics, we can see more vivid history, perceive the development of Chinese civilization, and appreciate the cultural pursuit of Eastern arts.概述 Introduction Four goats square Zun1. 四羊方尊1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 277人面鱼纹彩陶盆 Colored Ceramic Basin with Human Face and Fish Patterns 陶器是原始社会中人们创造 出的第一种日常生活用具，是人 类进入新石器时代的重要标志。彩陶又是原始人对陶器的一大创新，使陶器具有了极其珍贵的审美价值。中国彩陶是传统绘画艺术的重要源头。在西安仰韶文化半坡遗址 ①出土的彩陶，距今已 有 7,000 多年，可以说是目前发现的中国最早的绘画作品，其中最为著名的就是充满神秘感的人面鱼纹彩陶盆。 Earthenware was the first kind of everyday utensil that people of the primitive society created, and is an important symbol for mankind's entrance into the New Stone Age. Colored potteries were a great innovation of primitive people, adding very precious aesthetic value to pottery. The colored pottery of China was an important source of traditional Chinese painting. The colored earthenware works unearthed from the Banpo Relics of the Yangshao Culture ① in Xi'an date back to more than 7,000 years ago, and can be viewed as the earliest painting works ever found in China. Among these potteries, the best -known is a mysterious colored ceramic basin with a human face and fish patterns. 这件彩陶盆高 16.5 厘米，口径 39.5 厘米。砖红色的内 壁上， 用黑色对称地描画着相同的两组图案。 一组是两条鱼， 另一组则是两个人面鱼纹图案。这种图案很奇特，人面是圆形，头上有个三角形的尖顶，可能是帽子一类的东西。人的两眼紧闭，嘴角处各画着一条鱼，耳朵上也各有一条小鱼，好像在咬人的耳朵。 This colored earthenware basin is 16.5 centimeters high and 39.5 centimeters in diameter. On the brick red inner wall, two sets of patterns are symmetrically painted in black color. One set is two fish, and the other is two patterns of human faces with fish. The patterns are very peculiar. The human faces are round in shape, with a triangle -shaped sharp object on the top of the head, which may be a hat or the like. The eyes on the human Colored Ceramic Basin with Human Face and Fish Patterns1. 人面鱼纹彩陶盆 1小注解·Footnotes ① 仰韶文化和半坡遗址： 仰韶文化是黄河中游地区新石 器时代文化，存在时间为公元前 5000 年至公元前 3000 年，因 1921 年首先发现于河南渑池仰韶村而得名。半坡遗址是仰韶文化的一个代表类型，时间为公元前 5000 年至公元前4000 年， 处于新石器时代晚期，彩陶是它的重要遗存，上面描绘了很多种鱼纹， “人面鱼纹”已经成为仰韶文化彩陶半坡类型的典型标志。 ① Yangshao Culture and Banpo Relics: Yangshao Culture was a culture of the New Stone Age in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. It existed from 5,000 BC to 3,000 BC, and got its name because it was first discovered in the Yangshao Village of Mianchi, Henan Province in 1921. Banpo Relics is a typical representative of Yangshao Culture that existed from 5,000 BC to 4,000 BC, the late period of the New Stone Age. Colored earthenware is the important artifact of the Banpo Relics, on which many fish patterns were painted. The "pattern of human face with fish" has become a typical symbol of Banpo-style colored earthenware in the Yangshao Culture. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 278face are tightly closed, with a fish at each corner of the mouth. There is also a fish on each ear, which seems to be biting the man's ears. 图画的线条很细很直，看得出作者用笔相当熟练。颜 色的运用也很巧妙，嘴角处的两条鱼，伸入人面的部分涂 成黑色，形成了黑色的鱼头，耳边小鱼的一半身体也涂成了黑色，形成鱼背。整个图案结构对称，颜色对比强烈，非常有趣味。 The lines of these pictures are thin and straight, suggesting the maker was fairly skilled in painting. The use of colors is very ingenious, too. The two fish at the corners of the mouth have the parts inside the face painted in black color, forming black fish heads, and half of the body of each fish at the ears is also painted in black to form the backs of the fish. The whole picture is symmetrical in structure, and has a clear contrast in colors. It is very tasteful. 人面鱼纹显然表达了一种原始的信仰。至于具体的含 义，学者们有多种解释。有人认为，鱼是半坡人的图腾②。 他们生活在靠近河水的地方，鱼对他们的生活非常重要， 并且鱼有大量繁殖后代的能力，于是将其作为崇拜对象，甚至把它当作自己的祖先，祈求它保佑本氏族人丁兴旺，这表现了人格化的鱼神。也有人认为，这里画的是巫师的头像，他头戴三角形的高帽子，嘴里叼着小鱼，正在进行巫术活动。在巫师旁边画上渔网或者是游动的小鱼，正是希望能够捕获大量的鱼儿。 The pattern of a human face with fish apparently expresses a primitive belief. As for its particular meaning, scholars have various explanations. For example, some hold that fish were the totem② of the Banpo people. The Banpo people lived near rivers, and fish were important to their lives; in addition, fish have the ability to procreate many offsprings. Therefore, the Banpo worshipped fish and even viewed them as their ancestors, praying for their protection and for the increase of their clan's population. That face was a personified fish god. Others argue that the human face was the head of a wizard, who was performing magic with a triangle -shaped hat on his head and small fish in his mouth. In this view, the fishnet or swimming fish beside the wizard suggested the desire to catch an abundance of fish. 人面鱼纹图案线条简单，古朴美丽而又充满神秘感， 散发着永恒的艺术魅力， 吸引着人们不断地进行探索研究。 The pattern of a human face with fish has straightforward lines, is simple, beautiful and full of the sense of mystery. It reveals eternal artistic charm, attracting people's further investigation.小注解·Footnotes ② 图腾：原始社会的人认 为跟本氏族有血缘关系的某种 动物或自然物，一般用作本氏族的标志。 ② Totem: An animal or natural object that was believed by people of primitive societies to have consanguineous relations to their own clan and that was adopted by them as an emblem of the clan. 1 2 The human face pattern1. 人面纹 The fish pattern2. 鱼纹 文物篇 Cultural Relics 279Jade Dragon of Hongshan Culture红山玉龙 1971 年， 内 蒙 古 的一个农民无意间挖出 了一件像英文字母“C”形状的墨绿色玉龙，这就是被称为“中华第一玉雕龙”的红山文化 ① 玉龙。 In 1971, a peasant in Inner Mongolia accidentally dug out a dark green jade dragon in the shape of the English letter "C." It was the jade dragon of Hongshan Culture ①, which has been praised as "the first jade carving dragon of China." 龙是一种神话动 物，是中国人自己创造的，中国人自豪地称自己是“龙的 传人”。这条玉龙距今约 5,000 年，它的出土，让人们看到了早期中国龙的形象。 The dragon is a mythic animal created by the Chinese people, who proudly declare themselves as "the descendents of the dragon." The jade dragon can date back to about 5,000 years ago, and its excavation shows people the image of China's dragon in its early stage. 玉龙高 26 厘米，身体蜷（ quán）曲，呈“C”字形。 龙的嘴向前伸出，很像猪嘴。两只眼睛前宽后细，凸出玉 器表面，好像狮子、马之类的动物。龙的颈背上有一条长Jade dragon of Hongshan Culture The head of jade dragon1. 红山文化玉龙 2. 玉龙龙首 小注解·Footnotes ① 红山文化：新石器时代 中国北方最重要的文化之一。 距今约五六千年。主要分布在辽宁西部和内蒙古东部，因最早发现于内蒙古赤峰市郊的红山遗址而得名。红山文化处于母系氏族社会，经济形态以农业为主， 渔、 牧、 猎并存， 制陶、打磨石器等也达到很高水平。红山文化作为中华文化的起源之一， 最引人注目的是以玉龙、玉猪龙为代表的大量出土玉器。 ① Hongshan Culture: One of the most important cultures in north China during the New Stone Age, dating back to about 5,000 or 6,000 years ago, mainly distributed in the west of Liaoning and in the east of Inner Mongolia, and got its name because it was first discovered at the Hongshan Relics in the suburbs of Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia. Hongshan Culture was a matriarchal clan society; its economy depended on a combination of crops, fishing, grazing and hunting, mainly driven by the growth of crops, while pottery and grinding of stone utensils also reached a very high level. As one of the origins of Chinese culture, its most eye-catching aspect is the many unearthed jade utensils represented by jade dragons and jade pig-dragons. 1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 280毛，弯曲上卷，占龙体三分之一以上，使龙显得很有神采。 玉龙身体正中有一个小孔，用绳子穿起后，龙的首尾正好呈向下的水平状态， 显然， 这个孔的位置经过了精密计算。 The jade dragon is 26 centimeters high, and curves its body in a "C" shape. Its mouth protrudes forwards, very similar to that of a pig. Its eyes are wide in the front part and narrow in the back, protruding out of the surface of the jade. Like other animals such as lions and horses, the jade dragon has long mane on its neck and back, which curves upwards and covers more than one third of the whole body, giving the dragon a very impressive appearance. On the body of the jade dragon there is a hole. When the dragon is hung with a strand through this hole, the dragon's head and tail are at the same level. The location of this hole is clearly the result of precise calculation. 这条玉龙没有过多的装饰刻画，整体光滑圆润。造型 简洁、 夸张， 但却灵活有力， 生动地表现了龙的形象和精神。 The jade dragon has no excessive decorative carving, and the whole body is glossy and sleek. The shape is simple and exaggerated, but agile and vigorous, vividly representing the image and spirit of dragons. 这条玉龙无爪、 无角、 无鳞， 体现了早期中国龙的形象， 同时也具有浓郁的神秘色彩，很可能与中国原始宗教崇拜 有关。 This jade dragon has no claws, horns or scales. It embodies the image of China's dragon in the early period, and meanwhile shows strong mystery. It was probably related to the primitive religious worship of China. 红山玉龙是已知发现最早的以玉为原料制作的龙的形 象，对于研究中国原始宗教、龙文化的起源和发展，都有 非常重要的意义。 The jade dragon of Hongshan Culture is the earliest image of dragon made of jade that has been discovered, and it is very significant to the research of China's primitive religion and the origin and development of dragon culture小知识·Small Encyclopedia 玉猪龙：红山文化出土的 一种形体较粗肥的猪形玉龙。 一般放置在墓主人的胸前，也是当时的崇拜物。可见 5,000多年前，龙崇拜在中国北方已经十分盛行了。猪龙的形象也为研究龙的起源提供了重要依据。 中华文化起源于农业文明，猪作为家畜，是财富和地位的标志。先民们把想象中的龙和现实中的猪结合起来，反映了他们对农业丰收、财富增加以及氏族兴旺的期盼。 Jade pig-dragon: More excavated objects of Hongshan Culture are kinds of jade dragons which are relatively fatter and in the shape of pigs. Such objects were placed before the chests of owners of tombs, and were also idols at that time. They indicate that the worship of the dragon prevailed more than 5,000 years ago in north China. The image of pig-dragons has provided important evidence for research into the dragon's origin. Chinese culture originated from agricultural civilization; as domestic animals, pigs were a symbol of wealth and social status. These ancestors combined the dragon in imagination with the pig in reality, reflecting their wish for agricultural harvest, increased wealth and clan prosperity.1 Jade pig - dragon of Hongshan Culture1. 红山文化玉猪龙 文物篇 Cultural Relics 2811后母戊鼎 Houmuwu Square Cauldron 后母戊鼎，是 1937 年在河南安阳发现的一件商代青铜 器，距今已有 3,000 多年的历史。 Houmuwu Square Cauldron (Houmuwu Fang Ding in pinyin ) is a cultural relic unearthed in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province that bears a history of more than 3,000 years. 鼎，本是煮食物的用具，与现在锅的功用类似。早期 的鼎多是陶土制作的，到了商周时代，中国的青铜铸造技 术达到了很高的水平，人们就用青铜来制作鼎。不过这时候的鼎多是作为祭祀祖先和神灵的礼器来使用，而且不同身份和地位的人使用鼎的数量和规格也不相同。鼎成为权势的象征，具有浓厚的宗教和政治意义。 Ding were originally cooking vessels, and their function was like that of today's cauldron. At its earliest stage, ding were mostly made of ceramic clay; during the Shang and Zhou (17th century -256 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology developed to a very high level in China and people used bronze to cast ding. But by that time, ding were no longer common pieces of cooking utensils; instead, they had become ceremonial objects for offering sacrifices to ancestors and gods and spirits, and the amounts and sizes of ding in use were determined by the identity and status of the user. In a word, they were the status symbol, with strong religious and political meanings. 后母戊鼎是商王文丁为祭祀他的母亲而铸造的。“后 母戊”原是这只方鼎内壁上的铭文，“后”表示墓主人的 身份，“母戊”是文丁的母亲，后来，“后母戊”就成了这只大方鼎的名称。 Houmuwu Square Cauldron was a ritual object casted by King Wending of the Shang Dynasty for the ceremony of offering sacrifices to his mother. The three characters " hou mu wu " form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, " hou" means Houmuwu Square Cauldron1. 后母戊鼎 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 282the identity of the queen and "mu wu" is the name of the King's mother. Later on, Houmuwu became the name of this huge cauldron. 后母戊鼎是至今出土的青铜鼎中最大最重的，它高 133 厘米，长 110 厘米，宽 78 厘米，重 832.84 千克。鼎呈 长方形， 有四个粗大的空心足， 两个直立的大耳， 气魄宏伟。鼎的四面外壁中间没有纹饰，显得很朴素，但四周和足部都刻铸着云纹和兽面纹。在大鼎的两耳上还有两只猛虎，虎口相对咬着人头。 这些奇特的花纹充满恐怖和神秘之感，显示着当时统治者的权威。 Houmuwu Square Cauldron is the largest and heaviest of its kind among the unearthed bronze cauldrons so far. It is 1.33 m high, 1.10 m long and 0.78 m wide, weighing 832.84 kg. This cauldron is in a rectangular shape, and has four thick hollow legs and two large erecting handles; it looks magnificent. The cauldron has no decorative patterns in the middle of the four outer sides, appearing very simple; but around its body and on its feet are casted patterns of clouds and the faces of beasts. On the two ear -like handles there are two fierce tigers, whose mouths are in opposite positions, with a human head in each mouth. These peculiar patterns are full of horror and mystery, showing the authority of rulers at that time. 在当时，铸造这样一件青铜器需要 1,000 多千克的青 铜材料，几百名工匠同时操作才能完成。后母戊鼎集中代 表了商周青铜铸造技术的最高成就。 At that time, it needed 1,000 kg of bronze and hundreds of workers in synchronous operation to produce it. Houmuwu Square Cauldron is a concentrated sign of the highest achievements of bronze casting techniques of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. 鼎曾经是国家和权力的象征。 “鼎”字也被赋予了“尊 贵”“盛大”等含义。所以汉语里有些与鼎有关的词语， 也表达了这样的意思， 比如， “大名鼎鼎” 指非常著名， “一言九鼎”指起决定作用的言论，等。 Such cauldrons ( ding) were once a symbol of the state and power, and the word ding has been bestowed with the meanings of "high rank" and "grandeur," hence some phrases related to ding in the Chinese language also imply similar meanings. For example, " da ming ding ding" means to be very famous, and " yi yan jiu ding" means a decisive comment. The inscription of the Houmuwu Ding1. 方鼎内壁上的铭文 1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 2831越王勾践剑 Sword of King Goujian of Yue 青铜剑是青铜时代的产物。青铜剑大约出现在商周之 际，距今已有 3,000 多年的历史。春秋战国诸侯争霸，战 争不断。 吴、 越两国 （大致位于今天的江苏南部、 浙江一带）地形复杂， 江河密布， 不适合当时北方平原地带常见的车战，水战和步兵作战较多。剑作为适合近距离战斗的锋利而轻便的短兵器， 在吴越地区越来越受到重视， 有了很大发展。 Bronze swords in the narrowest sense were an invention of the Bronze Age. Bronze swords emerged sometime between the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and have a history of more than 3,000 years. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, wars for hegemony were ceaseless, the State of Wu and the State of Yue (roughly in today's south Jiangsu and Zhejiang, respectively) had complicated terrains and a large number of rivers, so vehicle battles which were commonly seen in the plains in the north were not well suited for the area, whereas battles on water or by infantry were more frequent. Swords as short weapons were sharp and convenient, suitable for close range fighting, hence receiving more attention. They developed significantly in the Wu and Yue areas. The sword of king Goujian of Yue1. 越王勾践剑 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 2841965 年，在湖北江陵的一个楚国 贵族的墓穴中，考古工作者发现了一把 紧插在一个黑漆木剑鞘里的青铜宝剑，这把剑已在地下埋藏了 2,500 多年，出土时竟还寒光闪闪，毫无锈迹，剑刃薄而锋利，二十多层纸一划即破。这就是举世闻名的越王勾践剑。 In 1965, a bronze sword tightly inserted in a lacquered black wooden sheath was discovered by archaeologists in the tomb of an aristocrat of the State of Chu, which is located in Jiangling, Hubei Province. This sword had been buried underground for more than 2,500 years; when it was unearthed, however, it still shined without any rust, the edges of its blade were thin and sharp, and could cut through more than twenty layers of paper very easily. The discovery is known as the world famous Sword of Goujian of Yue. 越王勾践剑全长近 56 厘米，剑身满布黑色菱形几何暗 花纹，一面铸有“越王勾践 自作用剑”八字，表明它最初 的主人是春秋时期曾经卧薪尝胆①的越国国王勾践。剑格上 用蓝色琉璃和绿松石镶嵌成美丽的纹饰， 剑柄用丝线缠绕，剑首向外翻卷作圆箍，里面有 11 道极其精细的同心圆。 The sword totals 56 cm in length, and its blade is fully covered with black veiled rhombus patterns. Casted on one side of the blade are eight Chinese characters meaning "the sword of King Goujian of Yue, made by himself and for his own use." This inscription indicates that the original owner of this sword was King Goujian of the State of Yue during the Spring and Autumn Period, who once slept on firewood and tasted gallbladders ①. Its cross -guard is decorated with inlaid blue glaze and turquoise which form a beautiful pattern, its grip is wrapped with silk thread, its pommel curves outwards into a hoop, and within the hoop there are 11 extremely exquisite concentric circles. 据现代科学测定，越王勾践剑的主要成分是铜和锡， 还有少量的铅、铁、硫等，并且同一剑上不同部位的合金 成分各不相同。 剑脊需要韧性好， 所以含铜较多， 不易折断 ；剑刃需要硬度大，所以含锡多，可使剑锋利；有花纹的地小注解·Footnotes ① 卧薪尝胆：春秋时期， 越国被吴国打败，越王勾践立 志报仇。据说他睡觉睡在柴草上，吃饭前要尝一尝苦胆，以此激励自己不忘耻辱。经过长期准备，他终于打败了吴国。 ① Slept on firewood and tasted gallbladders: During the Spring and Autumn Period, the State of Yue was once defeated by the State of Wu, and King Goujian of Yue swore to take his revenge. It is said that he slept on firewood and tasted gall- bladders before meals in order to remind himself of the shame. After a long period of preparation, he finally defeated the State of Wu. The eight characters in the body of the sword of king Goujian of Yue1. 剑身上铸有 “越王勾践 自作用剑” 八个字 1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 285小知识·Small Encyclopedia 勾践剑既然是越国的 ， 为什么会在楚国的墓葬中出现 呢？有人推测，越国后来被楚国灭亡，楚王得到这把宝剑，把它赏赐给了王公大臣；也有人认为，越国和楚国曾经关系很好，勾践的女儿还嫁给了楚王，这把宝剑也有可能是她带到楚国的陪嫁。 Now that the Sword of King Goujian of Yue was a possession of the State of Yue, one may ask why it was discovered in a tomb of the State of Chu. Some people speculate that the State of Yue was vanquished by the State of Chu, and that consequently the king of Chu obtained this sword and bestowed it to one of his ministers; others speculate that since two states were once in good relations (and Goujian's daughter had even married a king of Chu), this sword might have been brought to the State of Chu by that princess as a trousseau.方含硫高，硫化铜能防止生锈并使花纹艳丽。这都是复杂 的金属复合工艺。而剑刃的精磨技术水平也很高超，可以同现在精密磨床生产的产品相媲 （pì） 美。这些充分显示 了当时越国工匠的高超技艺。 As modern scientific determination shows, the Sword of King Goujian of Yue is mainly made of copper and tin, containing a little lead, iron, sulfur and other elements. In addition, the ingredients of alloy in different parts of the sword vary. The central ridge must be resilient, so it contains more copper and does not easily break; the edges need to be sharp, so they contain more tin and thus become sharper; the places with patterns contain more sulfur, for copper sulfide can prevent rusts and keep the pattern bright and beautiful. It is a complicated metal compounding technique, indeed. Moreover, the grinding technique used on the edges of the sword displays a very high level of expertise, and its effect even can be compared with today's products produced through precise grinding machines. All these have fully demonstrated the considerable skills of craftsmen of the State of Yue at that time. 越王勾践剑的造型也非常有特色。它脊厚刃薄，凸起 的脊棱将剑身纵分为对称的两部分，从脊棱向两侧减薄， 最后形成锐利的侧刃，横剖面是规整的菱形。这样的设计使锋刃更加锐利，而且更加牢固耐用。剑的刃部轮廓也不是平直的，最宽的地方在距离剑格 2/3 的地方，然后呈弧线内收，到接近剑锋处再外凸然后内收成尖锋。剑刃有这两个呈弧状的外形， 就比平直的刃口具有更大的刺杀威力，实用性更强。并且，这样的造型均衡对称，线条流畅而又富于变化，非常优美。 The shape of the sword is also very characteristic. It has thick central ridges and thin edges, and the raised ridges divide the blade into two symmetrical parts. The thickness decreases gradually from the ridges to both sides, finally forming sharp edges. The horizontal section is a regular rhombus. Such a design makes the edges even sharper and more durable. The outlines of the edges are not straight; the widest part is two thirds the length of the whole blade from the cross -guard, then it narrows in the shape of an arc; when it approaches the point, it becomes broader and then narrows again, finally forming the point. With these two arcs on the edges, the sword is more powerful and more practical for use. Besides, such a streamlined shape is balanced and symmetrical, very beautiful with its smooth and variable lines. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 286Terracotta Warriors and Horses秦始皇陵兵马俑 秦始皇是中国历史上一位很有作为的皇帝。他生前用 了大量人力、物力为自己修建陵墓。秦始皇陵兵马俑就是 为陪葬这位皇帝而制作的陶兵陶马。 The first emperor of the Qin Dynasty (221 -206 BC), known as Qinshihuang, made great achievements in Chinese history. In his reign, he mobilized huge manpower and used a great deal of materials to build his mausoleum. The terracotta figurines of soldiers and horses at Qinshihuang's mausoleum were burial objects to accompany the emperor to the afterlife. 1974 年，人们在陕西临潼秦始皇陵附近发现了三座兵 马俑坑，其中共埋葬了兵俑和陶马 8,000 余个，被称为“世 界第八奇迹”。这些兵马俑与真人真马一般大小或略大，威风凛凛，排列着整齐的军阵，象征着守卫秦始皇陵园的军队。俑群规模宏大，场面壮观，展现了秦军威武雄壮的气概，洋溢着积极进取的时代气息。 1 2 文物篇 Cultural Relics 287Terracotta Figurines of Soldiers and Horses Bronze chariot and horsesTerracotta General Kneeling archery terracotta warrior1. 秦始皇陵兵马俑坑 4. 铜车马2. 将军俑 3. 彩绘跪射俑In 1974, three pits containing some 8,000 buried terracotta soldiers and horses were first discovered near the mausoleum of Qinshihuang, and have been regarded as the eighth wonder of the world. Standing majestically in military formation, these terracotta soldiers and horses are life -size or slightly larger, symbolizing an army safeguarding the mausoleum of Qinshihuang. The spectacular terracotta figurine groups express the powerful military might of the Qin army, with an overflowing epochal spirit of ambition and aggressiveness. 秦始皇陵中的陶俑武士，个个身材魁梧，体态匀称， 身高一般在 1.80 米左右。这些陶俑按照不同的兵种，又分 为步兵俑、骑兵俑、车兵俑、弓箭手和将军俑等。他们身穿战袍，手执兵器。有的牵着战马；有的驾着战车；有的单膝跪地，张弓搭箭；有的挺立阵前，凝视前方……陶俑的面部表情也非常丰富，或威武刚毅，或沉着冷静，或憨厚朴实。军阵中的陶马，体形健美，表情机警，仿佛要嘶鸣着奔向战场。 All terracotta soldiers look robust and are physically well proportioned. Normally, each one is about 1.80 m in height. They can be further divided into infantry, cavalry, archers and generals, etc. They stand in a variety of poses: Dressed in armor, holding weapons, leading horses or riding in carriages, some have one knee on the ground pulling back their bows to release arrows, and some stand aloof, gazing to the front. The terracotta soldiers feature various facial expressions, 3 4 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 288which are resolute, calm or naive. Each clay horse is 1.50 m in height and 2 m in length. They all look robust, stately and alert as if they are ready to charge onto the battlefield at any moment. 在秦始皇陵墓附近，还 出土了两套青铜车马，每 辆车上都坐着一个驾车的铜人，赶着四匹拉车的铜马。铜车马大小约是真人真马的一半，而且每辆车都由 3,000 多个部件构成，重达 1,000 多千克。这样巨大精美的青铜器，在世界上也很少见。 Not far from the Mausoleum of Qinshihuang, two sets of horse - pulled bronze chariots were found. On each chariot there sits a bronze human figurine driving four horses. The size of the bronze chariot is about half size of a true one, and each chariot is composed of more than 3,000 parts, weighing more than 1,000 kg in total. Such large and exquisitely made bronze ware is rarely seen in the world. 近年来， 在秦始皇陵园又陆续出土了一些陶塑杂技俑， 以及青铜仙鹤、天鹅等，展现了秦代宫廷的娱乐活动。 In recent years, other kinds of terracotta figurines have also been unearthed near the mausoleum of Qinshihuang, including terracotta figurines of acrobatic performances, bronze cranes and swans. These display entertainment activities in the court of the Qin Dynasty. 秦始皇陵兵马俑和其他珍贵文物的出土，为研究秦代 的历史、军事和文化艺术提供了重要的实物资料。在兵马 俑坑原址，已建起一座大型博物馆。 The excavation of terracotta soldiers and horses and other rare cultural relics at the mausoleum of Qinshihuang provides important practicality materials for the research of history, military affairs, culture and arts of the Qin Dynasty. Now, a large -scaled museum has been set up on the original site of the pits of terracotta soldiers and horses. Horseman warriorTerracotta warrior 2. 御手俑1. 军吏俑1 2 文物篇 Cultural Relics 2891972 年，考古工作者在湖南长沙市郊的马王 堆发掘了三座汉墓，也就是著名的马王堆汉墓。 墓主是汉初长沙国丞相利苍和他的妻子、儿子。马王堆汉墓出土文物非常丰富， 包括丝织物、 药材、漆器、乐器、陶器、帛画、竹简等。这些物品具有极高的艺术性和科学性，极为珍贵。 In 1972, archaeologists of China excavated three tombs of the Han Dynasty at Mawangdui in the suburbs of Changsha City, Hunan Province, which are the famous Mawangdui Tombs of the Han Dynasty. The owners of these tombs were Li Cang, the Prime Minister of the Changsha Kingdom in the early Han Dynasty, his wife and their son. Cultural relics excavated from the tombs are abundant, including silk textiles, medicaments, lacquer works, musical instruments, pottery, paintings on silk pieces and bamboo strips. These objects show extremely high artistic and scientific triumphs, and are thus very precious. 在一号墓即利苍夫人墓中，出土了基本完整的丝织物 和服饰一百多件。这批丝织物品种众多，色泽鲜艳，工艺 精湛，其中最引人注目的是“素纱襌（ dān）衣”。古人把 没有衬里的衣服叫“襌衣”，“素纱”是说制作衣裳的材料用的是没有染色的白纱。 From Tomb No. 1, i.e., the tomb of the Li Cang's wife, more than one hundred pieces of silk textiles and fineries were excavated essentially intact. In a manner of speaking, this group of silk textiles has a wide range of varieties and bright colors, and displays expert craftsmanship. Among them the most eye -catching is the "su sha dan yi" (unlined plain silk gauze garment). 这件素纱襌衣衣长 128 厘米，通袖长 190 厘米，领口 和袖口有较厚重的深红色镶边。用作素纱襌衣的纱，结构 精密细致，方孔均匀清晰。这样一件衣服的重量竟然只有49 克。长袍式的襌衣，折叠起来就能握在一只手中。“比Unlined Plain Silk Gauze Garment素纱襌衣 An Unlined Plain Silk Gauze Garment with the straight garment fringing1. 直裾素纱襌衣 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 290蝉的翅膀还薄，比烟幕还轻。”这是古人对质量上 好的轻薄丝织品的赞美，如此评价这件 2,100 多年前的衣服豪不夸张。 This uncolored silk gauze is 128 centimeters in dress length and 190 centimeters long from one cuff to another; on the neckline and cuffs there are obvious scarlet selvages. The gauze used for this uncolored, unlined garment has nice and exquisite structures, and the square holes are even and clear. Such a garment weighs only 49 g. The robe -shaped unlined garment can be held in one hand when it is folded. Ancient people would say a piece of thin silk textile was thinner than the wing of a cicada, and lighter than smoke when praising its top quality, and it is not an exaggeration for this garment that dates back to 2,100 years ago. 中国古代丝绸品种很多，纱是最先出现的，它的组织 结构比较简单，表面充满分布均匀的孔眼，空隙大，所以 显得轻薄。但是高级的纱料，并不以织物的空隙多为好，而主要以蚕丝是否纤细均匀为标准，这在纺织学上有专用的计量单位，每 9 千米长的单丝重量达到一克，它的丝纤度就是“一旦”。旦数越小，丝纤维越细。现在生产的高级丝织物，纤度约为 14 旦，而素纱襌衣的蚕丝纤度竟然只有 10.5~11.3 旦。 The varieties of silk products were highly numerous in ancient China, and gauze was the earliest among them. It has a simple textile structure, is full of even and large holes on the surface and is thin and light. However, the standard of top quality gauze is not a larger amount of holes, but mainly the degree of thinness and evenness of the silk threads. In the science of textile material there is a special measure "denier": When the weight of every 9,000 km long fibers reaches one g, its linear density is "one denier." The fewer deniers there are, the thinner the fibers will be. The linear density of advanced silk textiles produced nowadays is about 14 deniers; in comparison, however, that of the unlined gauze garment is merely from 10.5 to 11.3. 素纱襌衣向人们展示了汉代丝织工艺令人难以置信的 最高水平，就连今天在高科技手段下的复制品也达不到它 那样轻薄、精致。 The unlined plain gauze garment shows the remarkably high level of silk weaving techniques of the Han Dynasty, and even today's replication via high -tech means cannot produce garments so light, thin and exquisite.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 关于素纱襌衣的用途：素 纱襌衣是轻薄透明的，既不能 遮蔽身体也不能抵御寒冷。有学者认为，它是古代女子结婚礼服的一部分。女子出嫁时将这样一件类似罩衫的衣服套在红色婚礼服的外面，一方面可以在乘车时遮挡路上飞扬的尘土，另一方面也可以让里面的服装更加鲜明美丽。马王堆一号汉墓出土的这件素纱襌衣可能是墓主利苍夫人当年的嫁衣。 The use of the unlined plain silk gauze garment: The garment is thin and transparent, it cannot veil the body nor can it keep the body warm. Some scholars think that it was a part of bridal wedding costumes in ancient times. When a woman wore such a smock-like garment on her red wedding dress, she could shelter herself from raised dusts in riding, and meanwhile make the clothes under the garment brighter and more beautiful in contrast. So the unlined plain silk gauze garment excavated from the Tomb No. 1 of the Han Dynasty at Mawangdui was probably a wedding piece of Li Cang's wife, the owner of the tomb. An Unlined Plain Silk Gauze Garment with the curved garment fringing1. 曲裾素纱襌衣1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 291铜奔马，也叫“马 踏飞燕 ” ，是中国 青铜雕塑中的精品，1969 年出土于甘肃武威的东汉墓中。它构思精妙，铸造传神，1983 年被确定为中国旅游的标志。 Bronze Galloping Horse, also known as "Horse Treading on Flying Swallow," is one of the best bronze cast figures of China. In 1969, it was unearthed in a tomb of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) in Wuwei, Gansu Province in Western China. Because of its ingenious design and lifelike posture, it was elevated as a symbol of China's tourism in 1983. 铜奔马的原型是中亚地区的一种优良马种——汗血马， 即汉代人心目中的 “天马” 。 铜奔马高 34.5 厘米， 长 45 厘米。 这匹正在奔驰的马昂首嘶鸣，长尾飘飘，三蹄腾空，右后蹄正好踏在一只飞翔的鸟背上。那只快速飞行的鸟突然被马蹄踩中，吃惊地回过头去，好像想要看看比它还快的是什么，而马仍然神情傲然地向前飞驰。 The prototype of the bronze galloping horse is the Ferghana horse, an excellent breed in the Mid -Asia area, and this breed of horse used to be called "Heavenly Horse" by people of the Han Dynasty. The bronze galloping horse is 34.50 cm high and 45 centimeters long. The bronze horse is in a galloping posture. It neighs with its head high, its 1铜奔马 Bronze Galloping Horse Galloping Horse in Bronz1. 铜奔马 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 292long tail flies in the air, and its right hind hoof treads on the back of a flying swallow while its other hooves prance. The flying bird, which is suddenly treaded by the horse, turns its head back in surprise, as if wondering what could be even faster than itself, and the horse galloped forward proudly. 作者把飞鸟作为速度的化身，反衬骏马的神速，创造 出了“天马行空”这一神话般的意境，充分表现了丰富的 想象力和浪漫主义的创作手法。汉代艺术家抓住了骏马超越飞鸟的瞬间情景，以精湛的技巧，把奔马所具有的力量和速度融合成强大的气势，通过昂扬的马头、流线型的身躯和四条刚劲的马腿表现出来，很好地展现了中国艺术追求神似、形神兼备的特征。同时，用踏住飞鸟的方式使一个马蹄就支撑起整个雕塑，而且很稳，完全符合重心平衡原理。 The artist compared a flying bird to swiftness itself, and used it as foil to the speed of the courser, thus creating a mythic atmosphere of "a heavenly horse galloping in the sky." It fully expresses the creator's fertile imagination and romantic creation method. The artist of the Han Dynasty grasped the momentary scene that a courser overtook a flying bird, fused the strength and speed of a galloping horse into a formidable vigor with his considerable skill, and expressed such vitality through the its raised head, streamlined body and four robust legs, wonderfully showing the characteristics of Chinese arts that pursues both the similarity in spirit and the perfect combination of form and spirit. Besides, the whole statue is supported with a single horse hoof on a bird in flight and stands firmly, requiring a great skill of balance design. 铜奔马出土不久，就在欧、美、亚洲的多个国家展出， 得到观众的一致赞赏，被誉为“天才的中国马”。2002 年， 原中国国家主席江泽民曾将铜奔马的复制品作为国礼，送给前来访问的美国总统乔治·布什。 The statue was exhibited in many countries of Europe, America and Asia soon after it was unearthed. It received high praise and was appraised as an "ingenious horse of China." In 2002, Jiang Zemin, former president of China, presented a replication of the sculpture as a national gift to then U.S. President Gorge Bush following his visit to China.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 关于铜奔马雕塑中的飞鸟： 铜奔马出土后，中国著名学者 郭沫若为它命名“马踏飞燕”，这也是最为人们熟知的。不过仔细观察，那只鸟并不完全像燕子，反而更像一种叫作“隼 （sǔn） ”的凶猛飞禽。也有的 学者认为这是龙雀，也就是风 神，于是铜奔马便有了另外的名字： “马踏飞隼” “马超龙雀”等。 也有人认为那只鸟是乌鸦。 After the Galloping Horse in Bronze was excavated, it was named the "Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow." But with a close look, one can find that the flying bird in the statue does not look exactly like a swallow; instead, it is more like a fierce kind of hawk called " sun" in Chinese. Meanwhile, some scholars hold that the flying bird is just a godly bird " longque " (dragon-sparrow), i.e. the god of winds, and some others argue that it is merely a crow. Therefore, the statue has been given other titles such as "Horse Treading a Flying Hawk" and "Horse Overtaking a Dragon-sparrow." 文物篇 Cultural Relics 293兰亭序 The Preface to Lanting 《兰亭序》又称《兰亭集序》，是东晋书法家王羲之 的行书代表作品，历来被称为“天下行书第一”。 The Preface to Lanting , also known as The Preface to Lanting Collection , is a representative work of semi -cursive scripts by Wang Xizhi, a calligrapher of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and has been reputed to be "the first class semi -cursive script in the world." 公元 353 年春天， 王羲之和朋友到兰亭 （在今浙江绍兴） 游玩，他们坐在弯曲的溪水边，饮酒作诗，兴致极高。大 家作了许多诗， 王羲之乘着酒兴， 挥笔为诗集写了一篇序，这就是《兰亭序》。 In the spring of 353 AD, Wang Xizhi and his friends went to Lanting (today's Shaoxing in Zhejiang) for sightseeing. They sat beside sinuous streams to drink and compose poems in high spirits. They wrote many poems on site, and Wang Xizhi, in high spirits from drinking wine, wrote a preface for the collection of the poems, which became The Preface to Lanting . 这篇序生动地描绘了兰亭的秀丽风光，抒发了与朋友 聚会的欢乐。书法《兰亭序》共 28 行，324 个字，字体潇 The Preface to Lanting1.《兰亭序》（神龙本） 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 2941洒俊美，清秀而刚劲。有人称赞说，它飘逸像天上 的流云，矫健像腾空的巨龙。每一个字都很出色，同一个字也变化多端，如全文共有 20 个“之”字，但每个字形都不相同。据说，王羲之自己也很喜欢这幅作品，后来他又重写过几次，但总不如当时写得好。 The preface vividly depicts the beautiful scene at Lanting, and expresses the author's joy of being in revelry with his friends. The whole essay has 28 lines with a total of 324 Chinese characters. The script is handsome, beautiful and vigorous. It has been praised for being "elegant like clouds in the sky, and vigorous like prancing dragons." In the script, each character is excellent, and the same character has different forms when it appears in different places. For example, the whole essay contains twenty " 之 " (zhi in pinyin , with various meanings in ancient Chinese language), but each time when it occurs in the essay, it appears differently. It is said that Wang Xizhi himself was very pleased with this work, too, and rewrote it several times afterwards, but could not achieve the same effect again. 唐太宗李世民非常喜欢王羲之的书法， 得到 《兰亭序》 后， 就令人临摹 （mó） 了很多本。 唐太宗死后， 按照他的遗嘱， 真迹作为陪葬品埋进了陵墓。 Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Li Shimin, greatly admired Wang Xizhi's script. After he obtained the authentic work of The Preface to Lanting , he ordered people to make many replications of it. After Emperor Taizong's death, the authentic work was buried into his tomb according to his will. 我们现在看到的是唐代大书法家冯承素的临摹本，是 流传下来的《兰亭序》摹本中最好的，它较好地体现了原 作的风貌。这件临摹本上盖有“神龙”（唐中宗的年号）字样的印章，所以也被称为《神龙本兰亭序》。 The Preface to Lanting that we see today was the copy made by Feng Chengsu, a great calligrapher of the Tang Dynasty, and this is the best replication of the authentic work. It displays well the spirit of the original work. This replication has a stamp saying " Shenlong " (the name of the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of the Tang Dynasty), so it is called The Shenlong Version of The Preface to Lanting . Wang Xizhi1. 王羲之 文物篇 Cultural Relics 295唐三彩骆驼载乐俑 Tang Tri-colored Glazed Pottery of Camel Carrying a Band 一提起有关骆驼 的中国古代艺术品， 人们首先会想到那些釉色莹润 、色彩鲜明、造型精美的唐三彩俑 ，特别是那件1 9 5 7年在西安发现的负载着 5 人乐队的三彩骆驼俑。 Speaking of antique Chinese artworks about camels, people will first think of Tang tri - colored glazed pottery, which features glossy glaze, bright colors and exquisite shapes, especially the tri -colored terracotta of a camel carrying a five -member band unearthed in Xi'an in 1957. 这匹骆驼高 58.4 厘米，看起来高大健壮，四条腿强劲 有力，牢牢地站立在长方形的踏板上。背负一个铺着彩条 毛毯的平台，平台上边共有 5 个人。中间站着一个穿绿色长衣的人，他高鼻子，深眼睛，留着大胡子，看来是个“胡人” ①，舞动双臂正在跳舞。他身边围坐的两个“胡人”和A tri-colored Tang terracotta of camel carrying a band1. 唐三彩骑驼乐舞俑 小注解·Footnotes ① 胡人：古代中国对西北 和北方民族的称呼。 ① Hu: A general term for the ethnic groups in northwest and north China in ancient times. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 296两个汉人，用各种乐器为他伴奏。前边 的一个胡人正在弹琵琶，其他 3 人手中的乐器已经不见了，但从动作上可以看出是在吹奏乐器和打拍鼓，并且这些乐器都是西北少数民族特有的。这件作品表现了西北丝绸之路上的情景，或者是沿着丝路，乘着骆驼东来大唐的西北歌舞乐队表演的情景。 This camel is 58.4 centimeters high. It looks tall and portly, with four robust legs firmly standing on a rectangular gangplank. The camel carries a platform covered by a colorful carpet, with five people seated on it. In the middle stands a man wearing a green robe. He has a high -bridged nose, deep eyes and long and heavy mustache, thus looking like a "Hu" man ①. He is shown waving his arm in a dancing motion. Seated around him are two other "Hu" men and two Han men, who are playing musical instruments accompanying the dancer. The "Hu" man in the front is playing a pipa, the musical instruments in the hands of the other three have been lost, but from their postures one can tell they are playing wind instruments and drums, and such musical instruments are peculiar to the minority ethnic groups in northwest China. This work shows a scene on the Silk Road in northwest China, or a scene of performance by a singing and dancing team from northwest China that was traveling eastwards along the Silk Road to the Tang Dynasty. 这件作品不仅人物生动活泼， 釉彩也烧制得相当漂亮。 骆驼通体白釉， 在脖子上下和前腿上长毛的地方加涂黄色， 人物的衣服或绿色或棕黄，都显得饱满透亮。他们身下的那条毛毯，白、蓝、黄、绿色彩相间，非常醒目，给整个作品带来绚丽的效果。 This artistic work features vivid and lively persona figures in addition to its beautiful glaze colors. The camel is glazed in white all over its body, except for the parts above and below its neck and the hairy parts on its front legs in yellow. The clothes of human figures are 1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 297either green or yellowish brown, all looking plump and bright. The carpet under the five human figures is multi - colored and thus very eye-catching, adding brilliance to the whole work. 西安附近还出土 了另一件唐三彩骆驼 载乐俑。这个骆驼的双峰上也架着铺垫了彩色毛毯的平台，但是上面的 7 个人中并没有胡人，6 人手中有乐器，分别是箫、 笛、琵琶等，而在中间歌唱的则是一位年轻的女子，她脸颊丰满， 梳着高髻， 显得妩媚多姿， 与前一件有不同的情趣。 Another Tang tri -colored glazed pottery camel carrying musicians has been unearthed near Xi'an as well. This camel also carries a platform underlaid with colorful carpet, however, the seven human figures on it contain no Hu people. Among them, six men hold musical instruments, which are respectively a vertical bamboo flute, a horizontal bamboo flute, pipa and so on; surrounded by the six men is a young lady. She has a plump face and hair done up in a bun, looking charming and lovely. This work shows a different taste from the aforementioned one. 丝绸之路开通后，骆驼的形象就越来越多地出现在中 国的工艺美术作品中。唐代丝绸之路空前繁荣，这两件唐 三彩骆驼载乐俑色彩绚丽，造型生动传神，不仅是卓越的雕塑，也是文化交流的实证。 After the opening of the Silk Road, more and more images of camels occurred among the craftworks of China. The Silk Road unprecedentedly prospered in the Tang Dynasty; these two tri -colored Tang terracotta camels, with their loud colors and lifelike shapes, are not only excellent sculptures, but also tangible evidence regarding the cultural exchanges of that time.A tri-colored terracotta camel carrying seven musicians1. 唐三彩骆驼载七人乐俑 A Hu man leading a camel2. 唐三彩胡人牵骆驼俑 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 298五牛图 The Painting of Five Oxen 《五牛图》是中国目前所见最早画在纸上的画。作者 是唐代画家、宰相韩滉。 The Painting of Five Oxen is the earliest painting on paper that can be seen in China at present, and it was painted by Han Huang, a prime minister of the Tang Dynasty. 这幅画长 139.8 厘米，高 20.8 厘米。画中的五头牛从 左至右一字排开，形态各异。有的行走，有的站立，有的 低头，有的抬头，动态十足。整幅画面除最右侧有一棵小树外，并没有其他的景物衬托，因此每头牛都可以构成一个独立的画面。中间一头牛完全画成正面，视角独特，显示出画家高超的造型能力。 画家通过它们各自不同的面貌、姿态，表现了它们不同的性情：有的活泼，有的安静，有的胆怯， 有的倔强。 画家以简洁的线条勾勒出牛的骨骼转折，The Painting of Five Oxen1.《五牛图》 文物篇 Cultural Relics 299笔法流畅，线条富有力度，具有精准的艺术表现力，把牛 强健有力、 沉稳而行动迟缓的特点淋漓尽致地表现了出来。 This painting is 139.8 cm long and 20.8 cm high. Five oxen appear in the painting side by side from left to right, each different in shape and posture — walking, standing, lowering or raising the head. It is very dynamic. The rest of the painting has no other activity besides a small tree on the right behind the oxen; therefore, each ox can constitute an independent scene. The middle ox has a precise obverse posture, and the unique angle of view shows the painter's superb ability of contours. Through the different appearance and posture of each ox, the painter displays their unique dispositions: liveliness, quietness, timidity or obstinacy. With simple lines, the painter outlines the oxen's frames. The drawing is smooth, and the lines are vigorous. With precise artistic expressive force, it fully displays the traits of oxen such as sturdiness, sedateness and tardiness. 牛是中国古代绘画的传统题材之一，体现了农业古国 以农为本的主导思想。韩滉任宰相期间，注重农业发展， 这幅画可能含有鼓励农耕的意义。 Oxen were one of the traditional themes of antique Chinese paintings, suggesting the ancient guiding thought of this agriculture - centered country. When he held the post of prime minister, Han Huang attached importance to agricultural development, so this painting may have the meaning of encouraging crop farming. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 300 清明上河图 Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival 北宋画家张择端的《清明上河图》在中国几乎是家喻 户晓的名作。这是一幅画在绢上的长长的风俗画，长 528.7 厘米，高 24.8 厘米。画家细致地描绘了北宋首都汴梁（今开封）郊区和城内汴河两岸的建筑和民俗风情，展示了当时的繁华景象和自然风光。作品以长卷的形式，将丰富的景物纳入统一而富于变化的画面中。 The Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival , painted by Zhang Zeduan of the Northern Song Dynasty, is a masterpiece familiar to nearly every household in China. This is a long painting about customs, painted on a piece of silk 528.7 cm long and 24.8 cm wide. The painter depicted in detail the constructions and folk customs in the suburbs of Bianliang (today's Kaifeng), the capital city of Northern Song Dynasty, and along the Bianhe River inside the city, displaying the prosperity and natural scene at that time. The work takes the form of a horizontally long volume, including abundant scenes into a uniform but simultaneously variegated work. 全图分为三个段落。第一段是郊外春天的景色。这里 有低矮的房屋， 农民正在田地里劳动。 路上走着几个行人，1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 301Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival (the suburb)Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival (the rainbow bridge) 2.《清明上河图》（郊外）1.《清明上河图》（虹桥） 有步行的，有骑马的，有抬轿的。路边的树木已露出绿芽， 好像春风正扑面而来。 The whole picture can be divided into three sections. The first section is a spring scene in the suburbs. There are low houses, peasants laboring in the fields, and passengers on the road walking, riding horses or carrying a sedan. Trees on the roadsides are sprouting, as if the spring breeze is caressing their face. 走过乡野小路，画面进入第二段，这个部分展现的是 汴河两岸热闹的景象。高大的船只或在河上往来，或停靠 在码头。一座巨大的彩虹一样的拱桥横跨两岸，桥上货摊很多，人来车往，像一个繁华的集市。 The field path leads to the second section of the painting, which portrays the prosperity along the Bianhe River. Large ships either shuttle along the river or berth at the dock. A huge arch bridge spans the river. On top of the bridge are many crowded stalls, and pedestrians and carts throng. It looks like a busy market. 最后一段描绘了汴梁城内的街市， 这里更加繁华热闹。 一座高大的城门楼下， 街道纵横交错， 街道两旁店铺很多， 酒楼、 茶馆、 肉铺、 布店、 药店以及旅馆、 寺观等， 应有尽有。此外，还有些小商贩在沿街叫卖。街上行人众多，大家兴致勃勃，或买卖东西，或听说书、算命、闲逛等。 The last section depicts the street market inside the city, which is even more prosperous and bustling. Below a loft gate tower are 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 302intersecting streets formed by densely located shops, and one can find any kind of shop he would expect to find at such a scene, including a tavern, teahouse, meat shop, cloth shop, medicine store, hotel and temple. Elsewhere, small retailers peddle in the streets, which throng with pedestrians; all people are in high spirits, selling and buying goods, listening to stories, consulting a fortune -teller or just strolling alone the street. 有人统计，《清明上河图》中共画了 700 多个人物， 60 多匹马、驴，30 多座楼屋，此外还有很多车、轿、船等。 画中每个人的服装、表情都各不相同，对楼屋、船只等的描绘也非常细致。 According to statistics, on the Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival there are more than 700 human figures, more than 60 horses and donkeys, more than 30 storied buildings and houses, as well as many carts, sedans and boats. Each human figure wears a different costume and expression, and the depiction of buildings and boats is also very meticulous. 《清明上河图》生动地表现了当时的社会面貌，内容 丰富，这幅风俗画长卷被后人称为“宋代都市生活的百科 全书”。 The Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival vividly represents the social appearance of the society at that time, and its content is abundant. This long volume of folk custom painting has been called an encyclopedia of urban life of the Northern Song Dynasty by later generations. Riverside Scene on the Qingming Festival （the street market）1.《清明上河图》（街市）1 文物篇 Cultural Relics 303定窑孩儿枕 Baby-shaped Pillow from Dingyao Kiln 白瓷是一种胎色和釉色都呈现出纯净洁白的素白瓷器。 中国古代烧制白瓷最好的地方在北方，宋代的定窑①就以生 产白瓷著名，有“颜色天下白”的说法，是当时的五大名 窑之一。 White porcelains are porcelain wares whose bases and glaze both show a purely white color. In ancient China, the best white porcelain products were made in the north, and the Dingyao Kiln① of the Song Dynasty was famous for its production of white porcelain goods, and was home to one of the five best -known kilns at that time. 瓷枕是古代夏天使用的物品，清凉洁净。这件孩儿枕 高 18.3 厘米， 宽近 12 厘米， 胎体厚重， 全身施釉， 洁白如雪。Baby-shaped Pillow from Dingyao Kiln1. 定窑孩儿枕 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 定窑：窑址位于现在的 河北曲阳县，这个地方宋代属 于定州，所以名叫“定窑”。 ① Dingyao Kiln: This kiln was located in today's Quyang County, Hebei Province, which belonged to Ding Prefecture in the Song Dynasty, therefore it got its name "Dingyao." 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 304瓷枕的造型是一个天真可爱的儿童，他两臂交叉，俯卧在 一个雕花的基座上。圆圆的大脑袋偏枕在手臂上，压在下面的右手中还握着一个系有长穗的彩球。孩子额头开阔，耳朵肥大，一双天真的大眼睛炯炯有神。他身穿长衫，外套一件坎肩， 下身穿肥大的裤子。 他俯卧的姿势也很有特点，两腿稍微弯曲，双脚上扬，好像是刚刚玩耍累了，稍微休息一下，随时会爬起来再去嬉闹，造型生动而富有神韵，充满了活泼的童趣。儿童身下的底座上装饰着花朵、流云等图案，不仅使整个作品显得精致，而且与儿童简洁的造型形成明显的对比， 突出了主体人物， 并使它显得更加洁白。 Porcelain pillow wares were used in the summer in ancient times, which feels cool and is clean. This baby -shaped pillow is 18.3 cm high and nearly 12 cm wide, and its base is thick and heavy. The pillow is glazed all over and is as white as snow. It is shaped as a lovely baby lying prone on a carved pedestal with its arms crossed. The baby's large round head rests on its arms, holding a colored ball with a long fringe in his right hand. The baby has a broad forehead, chubby and large ears, and innocent bright eyes. It wears a long garment, which is covered with a vest, and a pair of baggy trousers. Its prone posture is interesting as well, as its legs slightly curve with both feet raised up, as if tired from a game and is ready to play again at any moment after a rest. The shape is vivid and lifelike, full of a child's innocence and liveliness. The pedestal below the baby is decorated with the patterns of flowers and clouds. These patterns make the whole porcelain work more exquisite, and also form a contrast with the simple shape of the baby, giving prominence to the thematic figure and setting off its white color. 作者还很好地照顾到了物品的实用功能，孩子枕在手 臂上的头部较高， 因为两腿弯曲而使后边的臀部也高起来， 这样， 中间相对较低的腰部正好形成适于人头枕靠的枕面。这件白瓷孩儿枕在釉色、造型和实用性上达到了和谐的统 一。 Also, the artist has taken into account the practicality of the porcelain. The head on the arms is higher, and the curve of the legs makes the bottom behind higher, too. In this way, the waist part in the middle, which is relatively lower, nicely forms the surface of the pillow for the head of a sleeper. The baby -shaped white porcelain pillow has reached the harmonious unity of beautiful glaze colors, aesthetic shape and practicality. 文物篇 Cultural Relics 305编织象牙席是 明清时期广州的传 统工艺 。据说汉代已有这种技术，清代制作的象牙席品质最好，曾作为地方献给皇帝的贡 品。 The weaving of ivory mats was a traditional craftwork of Guangzhou in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is said that such craft had existed as early as in the Han Dynasty, and that the ivory bed mats produced in the Qing Dynasty had the best quality, being presented by local authorities to the emperor as tributes. 这条象牙席长 216 厘米， 宽 139 厘米。 由许多宽不足 0.3 厘米的扁平象牙薄片织成，纹样呈“人”字形，席子四周 用染成黑色的象牙片织出 3 道花边。背面有一块枣红色绫缎。席子平整光滑，柔软舒适，虽历经 100 多年，仍然洁白柔润， 可以自由地展开、 卷起。 象牙席夏天铺垫时比草席、竹席更为凉爽宜人。 This ivory bed mat is 216 cm long and 139 cm wide, woven with many flat ivory slices less than 0.3 cm in width. The bed mat has a herringbone pattern in the center, and three selvages on the four edges with ivory slices colored with black pigment. On the reverse side of the bed mat, there is a piece of damask silk in burgundy color. The mat is even, smooth, soft and comfortable, and it is still white, visually giving viewers a feeling of softness and coziness. It can be freely unfolded and rolled up even though it is more than one century old. In hot summer, ivory bed mat feels cooler and more comfortable than mats made of grass or bamboo.编织象牙席 Woven Ivory Bed Mat The ivory bed mat (the Palace Museum in Beijing)1. 象牙席（北京故宫博物院） 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 306据文献记载，编象牙席的细丝，是把象牙用 特殊的方法煮软，然后一条一条地抽出来。至于 是什么特殊的方法，却没有说明，应该是工匠们利用象牙细致的纹理与韧性，将用药水浸泡过的象牙劈成均匀的薄片，再磨制出洁白的光泽，然后编织成各种纹饰。或者先加工象牙条，然后再进行软化处理。 According to literature, the thin strands used to weave the ivory bed mat were drawn one by one after an ivory was cooked with a special method. However, there is no explanation as to what method was used. Presumably, the craftsmen exploited the fine texture and ductility of ivory, cutting it into even slices after it was soaked in chemical liquid, then ground the slices until they gained a white luster, and wove them into various patterns. Alternatively, they might have cut the ivory into slices before softening them. 这件象牙席是广州数十位工匠经过一年半的 工作才完成的。象牙席用料多，编织工作很艰苦。 清朝的雍正皇帝崇尚勤俭，曾下令禁止制造和使用象牙席。这种编织技艺在清代后期就逐渐失传了。 It took tens of craftsmen from Guangzhou eighteen months to make this ivory bed mat, a costly project in terms of both material and the workload. Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty advocated diligence and frugality, and gave a decree to forbid the making and use of such bed mats. The weaving technique was lost in the late Qing Dynasty — in particular, the technique of cutting and softening ivory is difficult to grasp. 据清宫档案记载， 当初皇宫里一共有 5 张这种象牙席， 如今只剩 3 张。由于编织象牙席保存下来的非常稀少，而 传统的制作技术又已失传，所以这件象牙席在中国象牙工艺史上占有极其重要的地位。 According to documents in the imperial palace of the Qing Dynasty, there were five such bed mats in the imperial palace, but only three remain today. Because so few have been preserved and the traditional technique to make them has been lost, this ivory bed mat holds an extremely important position in the history of China's ivory craftwork. The ivory bed mat (the Yantai city museum)1. 象牙席（烟台市博物馆）1 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 307307民族篇 307 Thoughts and Beliefs思想信仰篇 达摩六代祖师像 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 308中国有一套完整的影响了人们几千年的思 想体系，这套体系最重要的组成部分就是孔子和 孟子开创的儒家学说、土生土长的道教学说以及从印度传来的佛教学说。 其中， 对中国影响最大、最深远的是儒家学说。 China has a complete ideological system that has influenced Chinese people for thousands of years, the most important components of which are Confucianism initiated by Confucius and Mencius, indigenous Taoism, and Buddhism introduced from India. Among them, Confucianism has exerted the strongest and most profound influence over the country. 中国人在思想信仰方面， 兼收并蓄， 从社会精英到平民百姓， 对于三家学说各取所需， 诸神皆供。经过长期的历史演变，儒、道、佛三家互相渗透，互相同化，基本形成了“三 教一体” 。 但是， 儒家侧重处理人与社会的关系， 道家侧重调养身心， 佛家侧重修炼心灵，三者又有着不可取代而又相互协调的功能。可以说，中国人的人格结构，就是儒、道、佛文化融合贯通的积淀。 Chinese people were quite open towards the thoughts and beliefs they were exposed to; people from the social elite to commoners adopted what they needed from the three schools of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and worshipped all gods and spirits. After a long historical process of evolution, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism penetrated into and assimilated each other, roughly forming the "syncretism of three schools of teaching." Confucianism emphasizes the relationships between individuals and society; Taoism focuses on the adjustment and cultivation of mind and body; and Buddhism stresses the cultivation of mind — the three have irreplaceable and complimentary functions. In a manner of speaking, the personality structure of the Chinese people is just a result of the syncretism of Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist cultures. 中国民间信仰在很大程度上受到三教一体的影响，其最典型的特征是实用性和多元 性。人们信仰神灵，认为它们能够实现风调雨顺、平安顺利、子孙满堂等美好愿望，为 自己和家人带来福禄寿财，过上幸福的生活。 The folk beliefs in China have been influenced by the syncretism of the three schools to a great extent, creating their most typical characteristics of practicality and diversity. Chinese people believed gods and spirits could help realize their prayers for a mild climate, smoothness and success, and abundance of children, and bring to themselves and their families blessings, longevity, fortune and happiness.概述 Introduction Confucius giving a lecture孔子讲学图 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 309儒家思想 Confucianism 春秋末期，由于社会矛盾引起的深重危机摇撼了传统 文化的权威性，这时候代表各阶级利益的知识分子纷纷著 书立说，提出解决社会现实问题的办法，形成了百家争鸣的繁荣局面。儒家就是其中之一。 In the late Spring and Autumn Period, serious crises caused by social conflicts undermined the authority of traditional culture, and intellectuals standing for the interest of different classes at that time wrote books and established theories in succession to put forwards solutions for the social problems, forming the prosperous situation in which a large number of schools of thought contended. Confucianism was one of those schools of thought. 儒家思想由当时的思想家、教育家孔子所创立。在长 期的学术研究和教学实践中， 孔子提出并逐步完善了以 “仁” 为核心的思想体系，后来被孔子的学生及其后学者发扬光大，从而形成了影响深远的儒家学说。 Confucius, a thinker and educator of that time, established Confucianism. Through a long period of academic research and educational practice, he presented and improved step by step a system of thought centered on the concept "benevolence;" and later, Confucius' disciples and subsequent scholars further developed this system of thought, thus forming the influential Confucianism. “仁”是儒家思想的核心。“仁”的意义几乎包含了 一切美德。孔子说：“仁者爱人。”即人与人之间要彼此 相爱，要“推己及人”“己所不欲，勿施于人”。一方面是把自己想要得到的好处也给予别人，另一方面，自己不想得到的东西、不想做的事情，绝不强加于他人。“仁”还体现在其他一些方面，如“克己复礼”，即人要克制自A portrait of Confucius1. 孔子像1 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 儒家的“五常”：儒家所 提倡的人在社会实践中应该遵 循的五项基本准则，即“仁、义、礼、智、信”。仁：仁慈、博爱；义：公正、正直、道义；礼：礼仪、修养；智：智慧，辨别善恶是非的能力 ； 信 ： 诚实、守信、说到做到、言出必行。 The "Five Constant Virtues" of Confucianism: Five basic principles advocated by Confucianism that people are supposed to follow in social practice, namely benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and honesty. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 310己的私欲等。“礼”是当时典章制度与行为规范的统称， 是礼仪 （形式） 与礼义 （内涵） 的合一。 作为行为准则， “礼”具有很强的教化功能，要求人们加强自身修养，约束自己的行为，以符合“仁”的要求。 "Benevolence" is at the core of Confucian thought, and its meanings include almost all the virtues. Confucius said, "The benevolent love people" — that is, people should love each other, share the benefits that they desire with others, and should not impose what they do not desire on others. "Benevolence" is also manifested in other aspects, for example, to "restrain oneself to restore propriety" — in other words, to suppress one's selfish desires. "Propriety" is a general term for the decrees, institutions and code of conduct at that time, and the combination of rituals (form) and righteousness (contents). As the code of conduct, "propriety" has a strong effect of edification, and requires people to strengthen cultivation and restrain their own behaviors so that they could meet the requirement of "benevolence." 孟子和荀子是战国时期儒家的代表人物。孟子发展了 孔子“仁”的思想，以推行“以民为本”的“仁政”学说 而著称于世。“仁政”的基本精神就是对人民有深切的同情和爱心。荀子则在重视礼义道德教育的同时，更强调政法制度的规范作用。 Mencius and Xunzi were representative Confucians of the Warring States Period. Mencius developed Confucius' view of "benevolence," and was famous for promoting the "people -oriented" theory of "benevolent governance" —the essence of "benevolent 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 四书五经 ： 儒家经典书籍。 四书指的是 《论语》 《孟子》 《大 学》 和 《中庸》 ；五经指的是 《诗经》《尚书》《礼记》《周易》和《春秋》。 Four Books and Five Classics: Both are Confucian classics. The Four Books refers to the Analects of Confucius , the Writings of Mencius , the Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean ; and the Five Classics is The Book of Songs , The Book of History , The Records of Rituals , The Book of Changes and the Annals of Spring and Autumn . 1 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 311governance" is essentially a deep sympathy and love for the people. In comparison, Xunzi laid more emphasis on the regulating role of political and law systems when he advocated the education of propriety and morality. 儒家思想在历史上绵延了 2,000 多 年，对中国、东亚乃至全世界都产生过 深远的影响。它所主张的“礼、义、廉、耻、 仁、 爱、 忠、 孝” 和 “温、 良、 恭、 俭、让” （温和、善良、恭敬、节俭、忍让）等价值观，一直是指导绝大部分中国人日常行为的基本意识规范。可以说，中华民族尊老爱幼、 礼貌友善、 温和谦让、认真刻苦等传统美德和精神气质，在很大程度上是受儒家思想的影响而逐渐形成的。儒家思想也是秦汉以来形成的包括今天中国、日本、韩国、朝鲜、越南等国家和地区在内的东亚文化的精神核心。另外，它传入欧洲，与意大利文艺 复兴以来所形成的新思想相互结合，成为 17、18 世纪欧洲启蒙思想的重要渊源。 Confucianism lasted for more than 2,000 years, exerting profound influence over China, East Asia and even the whole world. The values it advocates, including "propriety, righteousness, probity, the sense of shame, benevolence, love, loyalty and filial piety" and "moderation, kindness, respect, frugality and tolerance," have been the basic ethics guiding most Chinese people's daily behaviors all the time; so to speak, the traditional virtues and ethos of the Chinese nation, such as respect for elders, love for the young, politeness, friendliness, moderation, modesty, graveness and assiduity, are to a large extent the result of the gradual influence of Confucianism. Confucianism is also the spiritual core of the East Asian cultural circle that has been formed since the Qin and Han dynasties, including today's China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Vietnam. Moreover, it was spread into Europe and combined with the new ideas formed there since the Renaissance, and became an important source of the enlightening thoughts in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. 2 3 Kong Family Mansion in Qufu The mansion and the cemetery of Confucius in Qufu2. 曲阜孔府 3. 曲阜孔林The Confucius temple in Qufu1. 曲阜孔庙 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 312Taoism道教 道教是中国土生土长的宗教。正式出现在东汉末年。 其诞生以五斗米道、太平道的出现为标志。道教根植于中 国的传统文化之中，其渊源大体有几个方面：远古时代源于对自然物和祖先崇拜的原始宗教和巫术；春秋战国时代宣扬长生不老，借助炼丹采药希图成仙的方术；战国时的阴阳五行学说；诸子百家中的道家思想 ①；等。 Taoism is an indigenous religion of China. It formally emerged at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, and its birth was marked by the emergence of the Wudoumi Dao and the Taiping Dao. Taoism is rooted in traditional Chinese culture, and its sources are largely the following aspects: primitive religions and exorcism which worship natural objects and ancestors in remote antiquity, the pursuit of immortality by means of Chinese alchemy in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the doctrine of yin and yang and wuxing (five elements) and the Daojia ① thought in the Warring States Period. 道教的教义复杂， 派别众多。 它尊奉道家老子为始祖， 称其为 “太上老君” ， 把老子所著 《道德经》 作为主要经典。 认为“道”是宇宙的原始状态，是世界的本原，天地万物 都由“道”而派生。道教以长生不死、得道成仙为最高理想，认为人活在世界上就应该追求长生不死或羽化成仙，实现的途径就是信奉道教；认为只要诚心修炼，就能得到神仙的帮助或点化，获得超能力直至 The portrait of Laozi A picture of Refining pills in the ancient China1. 老子像 2. 中国古代炼丹图1 2 A picture of the Wudang Mountain4. 武当山Laozi ride Ox (by Chao Bu of song Dynasty Beijing Palace Museum)3.《老子骑牛图》 （宋人晁补之作， 北京故宫博物院藏） 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 313得道成仙。在生活上，道 教主张顺应自然，淡忘对现实社会的种种追求，过自然真实的生活。 Taoism has complicated doctrines and a variety of sects. It worships Laozi, the representative of Daojia, as its founder, referring to him as "Taishang Laojun," and views the Tao Te Ching written by Laozi as its major scripture. Taoism holds that the Way is the primitive state of the universe, and the origin of the world, and all existence in the universe derives from the Way. Taoism views immortality as its ultimate goal, believing that human beings should pursue immortality and that the very way is through belief in Taoism. It contends that one can get the help or instruction of immortals and gain supernatural ability and obtain immortality at last so long as he sincerely cultivates himself. In life, Taoism advocates acclimating oneself to nature, giving up various pursuits in the real society and living a natural and true life. 为了达到成仙的目的，道教发明了很多修炼的方法， 包括精神修炼、形体修炼、食物修炼等等。内丹道和外丹 道是其中比较著名的修炼方法。外丹是在丹炉中烧炼矿物以制造长生不老的“仙丹”；内丹是将人体比作炉鼎来习 练精 、气 、神 ，通过调整人体内的气息流转 ，回到生命的原本状态而长生不死。 In order to achieve the goal of immortality, Taoism invented many ways of cultivation, including the cultivation 小注解·Footnotes ① 道家与道教：道家是中 国春秋战国时期诸子百家中最 重要的思想学派之一。但先秦时无“道家”一词，只有老子、庄子哲学及相应的学派，学术界把老庄学派称为道家，是后起的一种学派分类观念。道教是一种宗教信仰，它有教派、教义、宗教组织等等。 ① Daojia and Taoism: Daojia was one of the important schools of thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period of China; in the pre-Qin period, however, the term "Daojia" had not yet come into being, and it is a result of the subsequent classification of schools of thought. In comparison, Taoism is a kind of religious faith, which has its own rites, doctrines and religious organizations. 43 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 314of spirit, physical bodies and via one's diet; in particular, the way of inner immortal pills and that of outer immortal pills are famous ways of cultivation. Outer immortal pills refer to "immortality pills" produced by way of Chinese alchemy, which are said to result in immortality; in contrast, the way of inner immortal pills compares a human body to a stove, advocating cultivating jing (material), qi (energy) and shen (mind) to adjust the breath and qi circulation of human bodies, returning to the original state of life and thus gaining immortality. 道教对中国古代文化的发展产生了巨大的影响。道教 的某些活动包含了一定的科学精神。如：炼丹本来是一种 制药手段，但导致了火药的发明与利用；采药治病，促进了中国医药学的发展；道教的养生之道与修炼之术，是今天气功、武术、太极拳等体育活动的直接来源，其养生理论仍受当今人们关注；道教的成仙思想和仙界构想，刺激了作家和艺术家的想象力，丰富了中国文学中的浪漫主义色彩；在民间习俗方面，不少道教内容渗入传统节日，许多道教神仙如玉皇大帝、王母娘娘等在中国民间受到普遍信仰，对人们的文化心理结构产生了深远的影响。 Taoism exerted considerable influence over the development ancient Chinese culture. Some aspects of Taoism exhibit the spirit of science and technology to a certain extent. For example, the alchemical refining of immortal pills was originally a pharmaceutical activity, but later led to the invention and use of gunpowder; the pharmaceutical and healing methods boosted the development of traditional Chinese medicines; the regimen and exercising methods of Taoism are the direct source of some of today's sports, such as qigong, martial arts and shadowboxing, and its regimen theory still receives attention nowadays; its idea of the pursuit of immortality and its notion of the immortal world have aroused the imagination of writers and artists, and enriched the romantic color of Chinese literature; for folk customs, many traditional festivals have been infused with the contents of Taoism, the folk beliefs in Taoist immortals, such as the Jade Emperor and the Goddess the Queen Mother, which remain popular in China and have a profound influence over the cultural psychological structure of the populace. 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 中国四大道教名山：湖北 武当山、江西龙虎山、安徽齐 云山、四川青城山。武当山名气最大，为“四大道教名山”之首， 又是武当武术的发源地。 Four Famous Taoism Mountains of China: The Wudang Mountain in Hubei, Mount Longhu in Jiangxi, the Qiyun Mountain in Anhui and the Qingcheng Mountain in Sichuan. The Wudang Mountain is the most famous of all, and is viewed as the leading one of the Four Famous Taoism Mountains, and the origin of Wudang martial arts. A picture of Taoist temple and Taoists in the Qingcheng Mountain1. 青城山的道观与道士1 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 315佛教产生于公元 前6 世纪的古印度 ， 是世界三大宗教之一。创始人释迦牟尼被弟子尊称为 “佛陀” ，意思是 “觉悟者” 。其信徒也以“成佛”为人生最高境界。佛教的基本教义有四圣谛 ①、 缘起法②等。 总的来说， 佛教认为世俗生活充满了痛苦， 生老病死、恩爱别离、怨憎相会等都是痛苦，而痛苦的原因在于人的各种欲望，只有皈 （ɡuī） 依佛法，通过潜心修 行才能灭掉这些苦难。 Buddhism originated in ancient India during the 6th century BC, and is one of the three major religions in the world. Its founder Sakyamuni was respected as the "Buddha" by his disciples, which means "the one who is enlightened;" his disciples viewed "Buddhahood" as the ultimate goal of human life. The basic doctrines of Buddhism include the Four Noble Truths ① and the Doctrine of Dependent Origination②. In general, Buddhism holds that secular life is full of suffering, including birth, senility, illness, death, parting from those one loves, being forced to live in proximity with those one dislikes or hates and so on. It goes on to state that the cause of suffering stems from human beings' various desires, and that one can eliminate these sufferings only if he devotes himself to Buddhism for concentrated cultivation. 佛教传入中国的时间一般认为是在两汉之间。在中国 的发展过程中佛教不断被中国化，吸收了儒家和道家的思 想， 与中国传统文化逐渐融合， 并形成了中国化的佛学宗派，佛教 Buddhism The Life - size statue of Sakyamuni at the age of 12 in the Jokhang Temple of Lasa1. 拉萨大昭寺内供奉的释迦牟尼 12 岁等身像 1 小注解·Footnotes ① 四圣谛：佛教的四种真 理— —苦、集、灭、道。分别 说明人生痛苦的本质、形成的原因、人生解脱的归宿、解脱之路。 ① Four Noble Truths: Four main truths of Buddhism, namely suffering, origin of suffering, cessation of suffering and path to the cessation of suffering. The four respectively explain the nature of human suffering, the cause of their formation, the destination of emancipation of human life, and the path to emancipation. ② 缘起法：也叫“十二因 缘”。主要用来解释造成人生 痛苦的原因，它把人生分为彼此互为条件和因果联系的 12 个环节。 ② Doctrine of Dependent Origination: Also known as Twelve Links of Independent Causation, mainly explains the causes of suffering in human life. It divides a human life into 12 links, which consist of mutual conditions and results. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 316主要有三论宗、天台宗、华严宗、法相宗、律宗、净土宗、 密宗、禅宗等。 It is usually believed that Buddhism was introduced into China between the Western Han Dynasty and the Eastern Han Dynasty. Buddhism was constantly nationalized in its development process in China; it absorbed the thoughts of Confucianism and Taoism, gradually integrated with traditional Chinese culture, and formed some Buddhist sects with Chinese characteristics. Chinese Buddhism has many sects, which mainly include the Three -Treatise School, the Tiantai School, the Huayan School, the Dharmalaksana School, the Vinaya School, the Pure Land School, the Esoteric School and the Chan School. 禅宗是佛教中国化的最典型代表，是中国最大的佛教 宗派。“禅”，是梵语，意思是静虑、思维修养。禅宗主 张人人皆能成佛，佛在人心里，修行不一定要读经、坐禅、拜佛， 日常生活中的行、 走、 坐、 卧也都可以是修炼的方式。其核心思想是通过自身实践，达到真正认识自我、脱离苦海的目的，所谓“一念顿悟，立地成佛”。净土宗也是广泛流行于中国普通老百姓中的佛教宗派，它也认为人人都可成佛，但理论色彩更淡薄，修行方式更简便、更民俗化，信徒只要反复念诵“南无阿弥陀佛”，就可以消除罪孽，死后就可以被阿弥陀佛接引到西方极乐世界，过上福寿无疆的生活。 The Chan School is the most typical result of nationalization of Buddhism in China, and is the largest Buddhist sect in China. The word "Chan" came from a Sanskrit term "dhyana," which means "meditation" or the "cultivation of mind." The Chan School holds that every human being has the potential to attain Buddhahood. According to the Chan School, the Buddhahood lies in a person's mind, while the practice of Buddhism is not limited to reading Buddhist scriptures, practicing cross - sitting meditation or worshipping the Buddha; instead, every motion in daily life can become a Buddhist practice. The core of the Chan School 1菩萨 ：指能利众生 ，可 以在未来成佛的修行者。但是 佛教徒实际上把他们当作佛来供 奉。 Bodhisattva: Buddhist practitioners who are able to benefit all living beings and gain the Buddhahood in the future, but are actually worshipped as Buddhas by Buddhists.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 317is to achieve the goal of truly knowing oneself and breaking away from the sea of suffering via the practice of oneself. Therefore, the Chan School advocates "sudden enlightenment on a moment and the obtainment of the Buddhahood on site." The Pure Land School is another Buddhist sect very popular among the people of China. This sect also holds that every human being can become a Buddha, but it contains less theory, more convenient practice methods and more colorful folk customs. According to the Pure Land School, one can eliminate his sins after death and be ushered to the Pure Land in the West by the Amita Buddha and live a life of endless blessings and longevity so long as he repeatedly recites "Namo Amita Buddha" in this life. 佛教传入中国，对中国文化的作用是不可估量的。佛 教的传入，丰富了中国的哲学思想和宗教体系，对民众的 精神生活产生了巨大的影响；中国诗歌、散文的空灵境界得益于佛教的精神；佛教石窟造像艺术的技法和素材，使中国的绘画、雕塑艺术受益匪浅；佛语、佛典和佛教故事大量渗入社会生活，成为人们常用的成语、俗语，丰富了汉语的表达，如“一尘不染”“心心相印”“跑了和尚跑不了庙”“临时抱佛脚”等等。 Buddhism has had an immeasurable impact on Chinese culture. It has enriched the philosophical thoughts and religious systems of China, and exerted considerable influence over the spiritual life of the people; the atmosphere of emptiness and spirituality of Chinese verse and prose can be attributed to the spirit of Buddhism; the skills and topics of Buddhist grotto image -making art have greatly benefited Chinese art and sculpture; and Buddhist language, allusions and stories have heavily filtered into society, becoming people's daily idioms and folk adages, such as "not to be stained with a particle," "mind acts upon mind," "The monk may run away, but not his temple" and "embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need." These have enriched the expressions of the Chinese language. A scene of the Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang2. 敦煌莫高石窟2 A scene of the Wutai Mountain, Shanxi1. 山西五台山 佛教四大名山：山西五台 山、四川峨眉山、安徽九华山、 浙江普陀山。分别供奉文殊菩萨、普贤菩萨、地藏菩萨、观音菩萨。 Four Famous Buddhist Mountains: The Wutai Mountains in Shanxi, the Emei Mountains in Sichuan, the Jiuhua Mountains in Anhui and the Putuo Mountains in Zhejiang, where Manjushri Bodhisattva, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva and Avalokitesvara (Guanyin) Bodhisattva are enshrined, respectively.小知识·Small Encyclopedia 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 318Folk Beliefs民间信仰 中国民间信仰指的是中国民众对神 明、鬼魂、祖先、圣贤乃至自然界各种物 象的信仰和崇拜。它把民间传统的神灵和各种宗教的神灵进行筛选与组合，构成包括社稷神、天神、雷电神、风雨神、山神、土地神、水神、灶神、门神、财神、福神、寿星、 月老等在内的一个庞杂的神灵体系。以下主要介绍中国民间对关公、妈祖、土地神等的信仰。 Chinese folk beliefs refer to ordinary Chinese people's belief in and worship of deities, ghosts, ancestors, saints, and even various natural objects and phenomena. They select and combine deities and gods from folk traditions and various religions, forming a very complex system of gods, including the gods of land and grain, the gods of heaven, the gods of thunder and lightning, the gods of wind and rain, the local gods of land, the gods of water, the gods of doors and gates, the gods of fortune, the gods of blessings, the gods of longevity and the gods of matchmakers. The following is a brief introduction to the Chinese folk beliefs in Guan Gong (Lord Guan), Mazu and the local gods of land. 关羽是三国蜀汉大将。在人们心目中，关羽不是宇宙 的主宰或救世主，而是伦理道德的楷模。他以“忠” “义” 的操行为后人所景仰， 并被加以神化， 尊奉为 “关公” “关帝” 。千百年来，人们对关帝焚香膜拜，旧时全国城乡几乎都有关帝庙。商人们都敬佩关公的忠诚和信义，把关公当作他们发财致富的守护神。同时，人们也希望商人坚守诚信进行交易， 把关公奉为主持公正的神， 来维护传统的道德秩序。 1 思想信仰篇 Thoughts and Beliefs 319Guan Yu was a senior general of the Shu Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms Period. In people's minds, however, Guan Yu was never a conqueror or savior of the world; instead, he is more often seen as a paragon of morality. Guan is respected and apotheosized by later generations for his "loyalty" and "righteousness," and has been called "Lord Guan" and "August Guan." For centuries, people have worshipped August Guan, and the Temple of August Guan can be found in towns and rural areas of the past. Businessmen admire Lord Guan's loyalty and righteousness, viewing him as a guardian god; meanwhile, businessmen are expected to be honest in business, respecting Lord Guan as a god of justice to maintain the traditional moral order. 妈祖，也称天妃、天后娘娘。妈祖的原型是北宋福建 莆田湄洲岛上的一位名叫林默娘的妇女。传说她会观测天 象，能够预知海上风浪，使当地渔民免除海难，对当地有恩德。据说林默娘去世后，经常在海上显灵救人，人们便立庙祭祀她。南宋、元、明及清代，历代政府不断加封妈祖， 使其影响不断扩大， 成为固定的职掌海上安全的神灵。直至今天，妈祖崇拜在中国东南沿海、台湾、港、澳等地区甚至东南亚仍有很大影响。 Mazu is also known as Queen of Heaven or Mother Queen of Heaven. The prototype of Mazu was a woman named Lin Moniang on 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 玉皇大帝：在民间，玉皇 大帝为万神之主、 至高的大帝， 简称玉皇、玉帝。道教的最高神本来是号称“三清”的三位至尊神，但在民间信仰中，玉皇大帝的地位远远超过了他们，成为统辖天下众神的最高神。 Jade Emperor: In folk society, Jade Emperor is the god of gods, and the supreme ruler of the universe. Daojiao has three supreme gods, whose general term is "Three Purities," but in folk beliefs, Jade Emperor is far superior and is considered the supreme god ruling all the other gods. A statue of Lord Guan A statue of Mazu1. 关公像 2. 妈祖像 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 320the Meizhou Island in Putian, Fujian of the Northern Song Dynasty. Legend has it that she was able to predict storms at sea by observing astronomical phenomena, thus protecting the local people and saving local fishermen from shipwrecks many times. It is said that after her death, her ghost often appeared at sea to rescue people from danger; hence temples were built to commemorate her. In the Southern Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, governments repeatedly bestowed titles to Mazu, consequently enlarging her influence and making her a goddess specially in charge of security at sea. Even today, Mazu worship still has a strong presence on the southeastern coast of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. 土地神又称“土地公公”“土地爷”，是某一具体地 方的守护神， 是城隍爷①的下属。 在民间意识中， 他官职不大， 辖区有限，属于神仙世界里的低级神，负责管理本土的日 常琐事， 所以土地神的形象也很平和， 多被塑造成慈眉善目、白须白发的老人， 有时还给他配上一个 “土地奶奶” 。 旧时，几乎村村都有供奉土地神的地方——土地庙。现代人祭拜土地神，则多属于祈福、保平安、保收成之意。 The Gods of Land, also known as "Lords of Land," are local guardian gods and the subordinates of a Lord of Chenghuang①. In folk mythology, the Gods of Land belong to a low rank in the world of divinity and are in charge of local daily trivial matters with limited authority, so they have a placid image, and are usually envisaged as an old man with kind countenance, white beard and hair —sometimes a God of Land is even matched with a "Granny of Land." In the past, almost every village had the Temple of Land, a place to worship the God of Land; modern people worship the Gods of Land to seek blessings, security and harvest.小注解·Footnotes ① 城隍爷：古代传说守护 城池的神，也是神鬼世界中的 一城之主，职权范围相当于人世间的县官老爷。因为城隍爷是人们心目中的阴间长官，所以很多地方的城隍爷常以去世的英雄充任，希望他们的英灵能和生前一样护佑百姓，除暴安良。例如北京、杭州的城隍爷都是文天祥。 ① Lord of Chenghuang: In ancient tales, a Lord of Chenghuang is the god safeguarding a town or a city, and also the master of a city in the world of divinity. His authority equates to that of a county magistrate. Because the Lord of Chenghuang is a chief in the other world in people's mind, the positions of the Lords of Chenghuang in many places are often held by deceased heroes, and people believe their heroic ghosts could bless the populace, eliminate the atrocious and give peace to the local people. For example, the Lords of Chenghuang in Beijing and Hangzhou are Wen Tianxiang. A statue of Lord of LandA statue of Jade Emperor 2. 土地神像1. 玉皇大帝像 1 2 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 321民族篇 321321民族篇 321Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries中外文化交流篇 唐代对外经济、文化交流频繁 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 322中国与外部世 界的交往已有几千 年的历史，它包括人员的往来，物产的移植， 衣食住行、婚丧嫁娶等风俗习惯的相互影响以及思想、 宗教、 文学、艺术与科技的传播。 The exchanges between China and the outside world have a history of thousands of years, including the mutual visits of personnel, the trade of produces, the mutual influence of life styles and folk customs such as marriage and funeral customs, and the spread of ideas, religions, literature, arts, science and technology. 汉代，“张骞出使西域”促成“丝绸之路”的贯通， 对中西方经济与文化交流产生了划时代的影响。中国的丝 绸大量进入西方， 佛教在两汉之间通过不同渠道传入中国。魏晋南北朝时期，佛教在中国得到广泛传播，佛教石窟、壁画、雕塑等艺术成为中国古代艺术的瑰宝，与此同时，佛教也成为中外文化交流的纽带。唐代，国都长安成为国际化城市，不少外国人来长安学习，他们回国后，在经济、政治、文化等方面推动了本国的发展。景教、摩尼教、伊斯兰教等宗教信仰也在这一时期先后传入中国。高僧玄奘和义净到印度和南海诸国求法，他们的游历记录，成为研究这些国家的重要史料。宋元时期，四大发明和中国的天文历法、医药之学都已传入阿拉伯地区和欧洲，而西方的概述 Introduction A portrait of formal meeting between Emperor Taizong and the messengers (of King of Tubo-Songtsen Gampo presenting a marriage proposal)1. 唐阎立本《步辇图》（唐太宗会 见吐蕃王松赞干布派来求婚的使者） 郑和航海略图 Sketch Map of Zheng He's V oyages 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 323天文历法、数学、医学等知识，也随 着大批东来的波斯人、阿拉伯人传进中国，相互起了促进作用。 In the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian's diplomatic missions to the Western Region facilitated the opening of the Silk Road, which cast an epochal influence over the economic and cultural exchanges between China and the West. A large number of silk products from China were exported to the West, and Buddhism was introduced into China through various channels between the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties. In the Wei, Jin, Southern Dynasties and Northern Dynasties period, Buddhism was widely spread in China; the artistic forms of Buddhist grottoes, murals and sculpture became the gems of ancient arts of China. Meanwhile, Buddhism became a tie for cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. In the Tang Dynasty, the capital city Chang'an became an international metropolis, and many foreigners came to Chang'an to study. After they returned, they boosted the economic, political and cultural development of their homeland. Other religions such as Nestorianism, Manicheism and Islam were introduced into China in succession around this period. Buddhist monks Xuanzang and Yijing traveled to India and other countries around the South China Sea to learn Buddhist doctrines, and their travelogues have become important historical materials to research these countries. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, the four great inventions of China and its astronomy, calendar and medicine were introduced into the Arabian areas and Europe, while astronomy, calendars, mathematics and medicines were carried into China by large groups of Persians and Arabians. The spread of such inventions and knowledge benefited one another. 明清两代，日本、朝鲜，南亚、东南亚诸国，乃至西欧国家，同中国都有或官方或 民间的交往。郑和七次率船队下“西洋”，直抵非洲东岸，更是中外贸易往来与文化交 流的盛事。欧洲耶稣会士带来了西方天文历算等科学知识以及测绘、机械等技术。中国的瓷器、漆器、壁纸、中国式园林、家具在欧洲风靡一时。大批华侨把中国的种植和手工业技术以及生活习俗等带到东南亚。中外在科技、宗教、哲学、艺术等方面，有了更广泛而深入的交流互动，对彼此都产生了极其深远的影响。 In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, China had governmental or non -governmental contact with Japan, Korea, South Asia, Southeast Asia and even countries in Western Europe. Zheng He commanded fleets to sail to the “Occident” on seven occasions, reaching as far as the eastern coast of Africa. That was a great event in the trade contact and cultural exchange between China and foreign countries. Later, Jesuits from Europe introduced to China the scientific knowledge of astronomy, mathematics and calendar systems and the technology of mapping and machinery from the West. Meanwhile, China's pottery, lacquer wares, wallpaper, Chinese style gardens and furniture became very popular in Europe. Large groups of overseas Chinese brought Chinese people's planting techniques, handcraft skills, lifestyles and customs to Southeast Asia. In the field of science and technology, religion, philosophy and arts, there was more extensive and deeper interaction between China and foreign countries, which caused extremely profound changes for both sides. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 324丝绸之路 The Silk Road “丝绸之路”是古代沟通中西贸易往来和文化交流的 重要通道。因早期以中国的丝绸为主要贸易商品而得名。 “丝绸之路”的雏形大约在公元前 3 世纪已经存在，公元前 138 年和公元前 119 年，汉武帝两次派张骞出使西域 ①， 使古老的丝绸之路得以畅通和繁荣。 The Silk Road was an important route for the trade and cultural exchanges between China and the West in ancient times, earning its name because silk was the major trading product of China. The rudiment of the Silk Road had been in existence as early as the 3rd century BC; in 138 BC and 119 BC, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the West Region ① as an envoy twice, whose missions and explorations expanded the Silk Road. “丝绸之路”东起汉、唐都城长安，向西经河西走廊② 至敦煌分为南北两线，在马里汇合，然后经里海南岸、巴A mural of meeting with envoys in the tomb of Tang Dynasty1. 客使图——唐墓壁画Sketch Map of Zhang Qian's Journeys to the Western Regions and the Silk Road张骞通西域及丝绸之路图 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 325格达， 抵达地中海东岸， 转至罗马各地， 全长 7,000 余公里。 这条丝路的开通，在古代东西方之间架起了交流的桥梁，中国的丝绸、刺绣、陶瓷和其他绚丽多彩的工艺产品被运往中亚及欧洲，而异域的核桃、蚕豆、胡萝卜、葡萄酒和多姿多彩的音乐舞蹈、绘画也在汉唐社会中产生了广泛影响。特别是印度佛教通过丝绸之路传入中国，大大改变了中国原有哲学、文学和艺术的风貌。 The Silk Road started from Chang'an in the east, the capital city of the Han and Tang Dynasties, extended westwards through the Hexi Corridor②, forked into the northern line and the southern route, and converged at today's Mary. Then, it reached the eastern bank of the Mediterranean Sea via the southern bank of the Caspian Sea and Baghdad, and finally extended all over Rome. The Silk Road totaled more than 7,000 km in length. The opening of this route bridged the contact between the Orient and the Occident of ancient times, transporting China's silk, embroidery, pottery and other splendid handcraft works to Central Asia and Europe; meanwhile, the walnut, broad bean, carrots, wine as well as charming music, dance and painting from the exotic areas exerted extensive influence in the societies of the Han and Tang Dynasties. Notably, Buddhism from India was introduced into China through the Silk Road, which greatly changed the philosophy, literature and arts of China. 除了陆上“丝绸之路”外，中西方还有一条海上“丝 绸之路”。这条海上路线，最早见于汉代史书，历代不断小注解·Footnotes ① 西域：两汉时期，人们 把甘肃玉门关和阳关以西，也 就是新疆及西边更远的地方称为西域。 ① Western Region: A term coined in the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties, referring to the regions west of the Yumen Pass and the Yangguan Pass in Gansu Province, today's Xinjiang and the areas even farther west. ② 河西走廊：东起乌鞘岭， 西至玉门关，南北介于南山（祁 连山和阿尔金山）和北山（马鬃山、合黎山和龙首山）之间，东西长约 1,000 公里，南北宽约 100—200 公 里， 是 西 北 —东南走向的狭长平地。由于形如走廊，又位于黄河以西，故名“河西走廊”。 ② Hexi Corridor: A long and narrow northwest-southeast plain between from the Wuqiao Range in the east and the Yumen Pass in the west, from southern mountains (the Qilian Mountains and the Altyn Mountains) to northern mountains (the Mazong Mountain, Heli Mountain and Longshou Mountain), about 1,000 km long from west to east and 100-200 km wide from north to south. Shaped like a corridor and located west of the Yellow River, it is thus called "Hexi Corridor." 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 326拓展。经海上丝路，可由南中国海至 印度洋，过波斯湾，上阿拉伯半岛或由红海至埃及，再从地中海东岸和南岸进入欧洲。海上交通的发展，使得中外联系大大增强。中外货物交易主要是中国的丝绸、陶瓷和海外诸国的金银及玻璃制品等。为了适应海上贸易的发展，唐宋开始在广州、泉州等地设立专门机构，负责管理海外贸易。 元代， 海上航行技术提高， 航行能力增强，中外海上交往空前繁荣，到明代郑和下西洋时达到鼎盛。 Apart from the Silk Road on land, there was also a Silk Road at sea between China and the West. This sea route was first mentioned in the history book of the Han Dynasty, and was developed generation after generation afterwards. The Maritime Silk Road at sea extended from the South China Sea to the Indian Ocean, then through the Persian Gulf to the Arabian Peninsula or through the Red Sea to Egypt, and at last along the eastern or southern bank of the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. The development of ocean transportation greatly increased contact between China and foreign countries. The traded goods between China and foreign countries were mainly silk and pottery from China and silver and gold products and glasses from overseas countries. In order to suit the development of trade at sea, the Tang and Song dynasties began to establish special institutions in charge of overseas trade in Guangzhou, Quanzhou and other places. In the Yuan Dynasty, ocean navigation technology was improved, and the capacity for sea navigation was increased; as a result, the contact between China and foreign countries by sea prospered to an unprecedented degree, reaching its summit when Zheng He of the Ming Dynasty commanded expeditionary voyages to the Occident. “丝绸之路” 是连接世界古代文明发祥地中国、 印度、 两河流域、埃及、古希腊和古罗马的重要纽带。它对古代 中西方经济、政治、文化等诸多方面的交流，发挥了重要的桥梁作用，极大地促进了整个人类文明的发展。 The Silk Road was an important bridge connecting the cradles of ancient world civilizations, namely China, ancient India, the Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece and Rome. It played a vital role in connecting the exchanges between ancient China and the West in the fields of economy, politics and culture, greatly advancing the development of human civilizations. The Silk Road sculptures in Xi'an, Shaanxi Province1. 陕西西安丝绸之路群雕1 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 327The Introduction of Buddhism into China佛教来华 大约在两汉之际，佛教传入中国，并对中国社会产生 巨大影响。佛教传入中国，是中外文化交流的重大事件， 也是对中国社会影响最深的文化交融之一。 Buddhism was introduced into China sometime between the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, exerting a great influence over Chinese society. The introduction of Buddhism into China was a major event marking the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and one of the cultural syncretistic events with the deepest influence over Chinese society. 佛教传入中国的主要路线是陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸 之路。佛教在中国传播的重要方式之一是佛经翻译。史书 记载：东汉明帝梦见一个金色的人，头顶有白光。第二天明帝问大臣得知，他梦见的人与西方叫作“佛”的神相似，于是命人去西域邀请佛教名僧。公元 67 年，两名印度僧人不远万里，用白马驮载佛经、佛像来到当时的国都洛阳。第二年， 汉明帝在洛阳兴建中国第一座寺院， 取名白马寺，二僧在此翻译佛经， 拉开了佛学在中国大规模传播的序幕。 The Baima TempleA statue of Faxian 2. 白马寺1. 法显像1 2 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 328The major routes for the introduction of Buddhism into China were the Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road, and one of the important channels for the spread of Buddhism in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures. According to historical literature, Emperor Mingdi of the Eastern Han Dynasty dreamed of a golden man with a white aura atop his head. The next day, Emperor Mingdi consulted his ministers, who suggested that the man he dreamed of seemed to be the Buddha in the Occident, so he dispatched a team to invite renowned Buddhist monks from the Western Regions. In 67 AD, two Indian Buddhist monks carried both Buddhist scriptures and images with white horses to Luoyang, the capital city at that time. The next year, Emperor Mingdi had the first Buddhist temple of China built in Luoyang, and named it the White Horse Temple. The two monks translated Buddhist scriptures on site, thus opening the prelude to the large -scale spread of Buddhism in China. 除印度和西域僧人来华传播佛教外，许多中国 僧人西行求法也为佛教在中国的传播做出了巨大贡 献，唐朝的玄奘就是其中极具影响的人物。 Apart from monks from ancient India and the Western Regions who came to China to promote Buddhism, many Chinese Buddhist monks who traveled westwards to seek Buddhist doctrines had also made great contributions to the spread of Buddhism in China, and Xuanzang was just one of the most influential among them. 公元 627 年，玄奘跋山涉水，历时一年进入北印度。 公元 645 年，玄奘满载而归，西安慈恩寺内的大雁塔，就 是唐高宗为了收藏玄奘所取经书而修建的，现已成为古都西安的标志性建筑。 玄奘在长安主持翻译了大量佛教经典，还撰写了《大唐西域记》。这部著作详述了他的西行见闻，成为中外文化交流史上的不朽之作。玄奘西行取经求法的经历在民间流传开来，并不断被神化、故事化，乃至最后产生了中国古典名著《西游记》，主人公唐僧的原型就是玄奘。 In 627 AD, Xuanzang arrived in north India after an arduous yearlong journey. In 645, Xuanzang returned to China and won a high reputation. The Dayan Pagoda inside the Ci'en Temple in Xi'an was built on the order of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty to house 1 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 329the Buddhist scripture that Xuanzang brought back, which has since become a landmark of Xi'an. Xuanzang organized and took part in the translation of many Buddhist scriptures, and wrote the Records on the Western Regions of the Great Tang Empire . This book depicts what he saw and heard in his westward journey, creating a great monument in the history of cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. The story of Xuanzang's westward journey was spread among the people, and constantly mystified and enriched; consequently, it developed into A Journey to the West , a famous classic of Chinese literature, which presents Xuanzang as the prototype of Monk of Tang. 佛教来华，不仅在中国历史上留下了灿烂的佛教文化 遗产，而且还以极深的智慧推进了中国哲学的发展，丰富 了中国的语言，为文学、绘画及音乐等艺术创作提供了新的题材和意境。 它进入中国后， 很快被中国本土文化改造、吸收，成为中国传统文化的一部分。 The spread of Buddhism in China has not only left brilliant cultural heritage in the history of China, but also, with its profound wisdom, boosted the development of Chinese philosophy and enriched the Chinese language, providing new topics and an atmosphere for artistic creation in literature, painting and music. After its introduction into China, it was soon transformed and absorbed by the indigenous culture, becoming an integral part of traditional Chinese culture. 2A portrait of Xuanzang The Dayan Pagoda in Xi'an1. 玄奘像 2. 西安大雁塔 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 330The statue of Jianzhen1. 鉴真像 小知识·Small Encyclopedia 鉴真逝世后，他的弟子按 照鉴真的模样塑造了一尊坐像。 塑像逼真，具有极高的艺术水平，无比珍贵，被日本政府定为“国宝”，珍藏在招提寺内。1980 年 4 月，鉴真塑像曾回国“探亲”，先后在北京和扬州展出，受到中国人民的欢迎。 After his death, Jianzhen's disciples created a sitting statue of Jianzhen in reference to his appearance in life. The statue is very vivid and has very high artistic value. Listed as a piece of national treasure by the Japanese government, it is housed in the Toshodai. In April 1980, the statue of Jianzhen once paid a visit to its "homeland," displayed in Beijing and Yangzhou in sequence, to the welcome of the Chinese people.遣唐使来华与鉴真东渡 Japanese Missions to China and Jianzhen's Eastward V oyages 唐代中国的经济与 文化高度发达，社会发展 处于先进地位，日本以积极主动的态度广泛吸收中国文化， 200 余年中，先后向唐朝派了 10 多批使团，从而掀起了中日文化交流的第一次高潮，推动了日本社会的发展，并促进了中日间的友好往来。 During the Tang Dynasty, the economy and culture of China were highly developed, and the development of the Chinese society held a leading position in the world. Japan proactively absorbed Chinese culture; for more than two centuries, it sent a dozen missions to the Tang Dynasty, thus providing for cultural exchanges between China and Japan to its first climax, boosting the development of the Japanese society, and promoting the friendly contact between China and Japan. 日本遣唐使团成员包括正副使、 僧人、 学生和各类工匠， 规模庞大，少的有 200 多人，多的达 600 多人。他们将先 进的唐朝社会制度引入日本， 推动了日本政治制度的改革。另外，遣唐使每次归国都会携带大量的汉文书籍和佛经，并把唐朝的书法、 绘画、 雕塑、 音乐、 舞蹈等艺术输入日本，经过改造，融为日本民族文化。如日本的假名 ①字母，就是 借助汉字创制出来的。 The Japanese missions sent during the Tang Dynasty were 1 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 331large-scale, varying from more than 200 to more than 600 members, including envoys, monks, students and various craftsmen. They took the advanced social system of the Tang Dynasty to Japan, improving the reform of Japan's political system. In addition, the Japanese missions to the Tang Dynasty returned to their homeland with a large number of books in Chinese and Buddhist scriptures after each mission. Meanwhile, they introduced the calligraphy, painting, sculpture, music and dance of the Tang Dynasty into Japan, and transformed them into Japanese culture. For example, the kana letters ① of the Japanese language were created on the basis of Chinese characters. 吉备真备和阿倍仲麻吕是遣唐使团留学生中的杰出代 表。二人于公元 717 年同行来唐留学，吉备真备在唐研习 儒学经典、科技、政治、艺术等 10 多年，回国时，将大量中国古籍、文物等带回日本，为中华文化在日本的传播做出了突出贡献。阿倍仲麻吕在唐留学 19 年，后来改名为晁衡， 留在唐朝为官。 阿倍仲麻吕毕生致力于中国文化研究，精通汉学， 尤其擅长诗文， 与大诗人李白、 王维等交情深厚。 Kibi no Makibi and Abe no Nakamaro were two outstanding representatives among the students of the Japanese missions sent to the Tang Dynasty. Kibi no Makibi studied Confucian classics, science and technology, politics and arts in China for a dozen years. When he returned to Japan, he took with him many Chinese classics and cultural objects, making prominent contributions to the spread of Chinese culture in Japan. Abe no Nakamaro studied in China for 19 years, gave himself the Chinese name of Chao Heng, and held an office in the government of the Tang Dynasty. Abe no Nakamaro was devoted to the study of Chinese culture all his life. He was an expert in Sinology, especially Chinese poetry, having a deep friendship with the great poets Li Bai and Wang Wei of the shared Tang Dynasty. 在日本遣唐使来华的同时，中国也有许多学者和僧人 东渡日本，其中最有影响的是高僧鉴真。作为传播唐朝文 化的使者，鉴真首先将佛教戒律传到了日本，为日本建立了完备的受戒制度，由此他成为日本律宗 ②的开山祖师。另 外，鉴真赴日本还带去了大量书籍文物和许多药方，他还用鼻嗅的方法帮助日本人辨别了许多药物，日本的药商界奉他为始祖。鉴真在东渡之前，招揽了各方面的人才，他们为中国文学、雕刻、绘画、建筑及科技等在日本的传播小注解·Footnotes ① 假名：日文所用的字母。 有平假名、片假名两种字体。 平假名多来自汉字的草体；片假名多取自汉字楷体的笔画。 ① Kana: Letters used in Japanese language can be divided into hiragana and katakana. Hiragana mostly came from the cursive script of Chinese characters, and katakana mainly the strokes of regular scripts of Chinese characters. 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 332做出了突出的贡献。鉴真在日本被尊称为“唐大和尚”， 他与弟子所建的唐招提寺及寺内的卢舍那佛，作为日本的国宝，至今仍屹立在奈良市，成为唐朝建筑影响日本的典型例证。 While the Japanese missions came to China, many Chinese scholars and Buddhist monks crossed the sea eastward to Japan, among whom the most influential was a dignitary monk named Jianzhen. As an envoy spreading the culture of the Tang Dynasty, Jianzhen was the first to introduce Buddhist precepts (vinaya) into Japan and establish a complete precepts -bestowing system in this island country, hence becoming the founder of Japanese Vinaya School ②. In addition, he took a large number of books and medical prescriptions to Japan, and taught Japanese people to discern many medications by scenting them; therefore the Japanese medical circle respects him as the first ancestor of this trade. Jianzhen recruited experts in various fields before his journey, many of whom made prominent contributions to the spread of Chinese literature, sculpture, painting, architecture, and science and technology in Japan. Jianzhen was respected as the Great Monk of the Tang Dynasty in Japan. The Toshodai Temple built by Jianzhen and his disciples and the Vairochana Buddha statue inside the temple still stand in Nara as national treasures, serving as a typical evidence of the influence of architecture of the Tang Dynasty over Japan. A scene of the Toshodai Temple in Japan1. 日本唐招提寺 1小注解·Footnotes ② 律宗：中国佛教宗派之 一。由唐代道宣所创，以注重 戒律著称。 ② Vinaya School: One of the Buddhist sects of China, established by Daoxuan of the Tang Dynasty, renowned for its emphasis on vinaya (precepts). 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 333Zheng He's V oyages to the Occident郑和下西洋 “郑和下西洋”是中外交通史上最伟大的事 件之一，也是中国最大一次对海外的主动联系。 Zheng He's voyages to the Occident were one of the greatest events in the history of communication between China and foreign countries, and the large -scaled proactive contact with foreign countries in the history of China. 郑和， 云南昆明人， 回族， 本姓马， 原名马和， 小名三宝，又作三保，后被明成祖赐姓“郑”， 宦官①，是中国明代著名的航海家、外交家。 Zheng He, a native of Kunming, Yunnan, belonged to the Hui ethnic group. His original family name was Ma, and original given name Ma He and infant name Sanbao. Later, he was bestowed a family name of "Zheng" by Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty. An eunuch ①, he was a famous navigator and diplomat of the Ming Dynasty. 明朝人所说的“西洋”，是指文莱以西的东南亚和印 度洋沿岸地区。为了扩大明王朝在海外的影响，发展中外 友好交往，从 1405 年到 1433 年，郑和受明成祖和明宣宗的派遣，先后七次率庞大船队扬帆远航。他们从江苏太仓出发，经越南南部、爪哇、苏门答腊和斯里兰卡到达印度西岸，最远到达红海和非洲东海岸的索马里、肯尼亚。郑和的船队是 15 世纪世界上最大和最完备的船队。28 年间，郑和遍访亚非 30 多个国家和地区， 其航程之远、 历时之久、船舶之多、 吨位之大、 船员之众、 组织之严密、 技术之先进、影响之深远，在中外航海史上皆为空前。 The "Occident" to people of the Ming Dynasty referred to Southeast Asia west of Brunei and the coastal areas of the Indian Ocean. In order to extend the overseas influence of the Ming Dynasty A portrait of Zheng He1. 郑和像 小注解 · Footnotes ① 宦官：古代宫廷内侍奉 帝王及其家属的人员，由阉割 后的男子充任，也叫太监。 ① eunuch: A person, usually a castrated male, who served an emperor or a king and his family members in the court in the ancient times. 1 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 334The sambo temple in MalaccaThe Zheng He's ancestral temple in Semarang Dajue temple, Central Java in Indonesia 3. 马六甲三宝庙2. 印度尼西亚中爪哇省三宝垄大觉 寺郑和祠堂and develop friendly contact between China and foreign countries, Zheng He, dispatched by Emperor Chengzu and Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty, led large fleets for seafaring voyages seven times in succession from 1405 to 1433. They set off from Taicang, Jiangsu, and by way of southern Vietnam, Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka, reached the western coast of the Indian Ocean, as far as to the Red Sea and Somalia and Kenya on the eastern coast of Africa. Zheng He's fleets were the largest self -contained ones in the world in the 15th century. Over a period of 28 years, Zheng He paid visits to more than 30 countries and regions in Asia and Africa an unprecedented feat in the history of navigation both in China and the world in terms of voyage, duration, fleet scale, tonnage, crew size, organization, technology and influence. 郑和的船队到达每个国家和地区， 大都受到热烈欢迎。 他们的船上装载着大量的金银宝物，其中以瓷器和丝绸最 为当地人所喜爱。船队从所到之处换回了珠宝、香料、药材等特产。返航时，还有许多国家的国王和使臣，搭乘他们的船只前来中国访问。 Zheng He's fleets received warm reception in most countries and regions they reached. Their ships were loaded with plenty of gold, silver and other treasure; in particular, pottery and silk were favorites to local people they visited. The fleets brought back local specialties such as pearls, spices and medicines from the places they landed. On return voyages, the kings and envoys of many countries traveled with them to visit China. 郑和是世界大航海时代的先驱。他第一次下西洋比哥 伦布发现新大陆早 87 年，比达·伽马到达印度早 92 年， 比麦哲伦环球航行早 114 年。作为外交使者，他的远航，不仅促进了中国与亚非国家的经济交流，还与所到国家建立了和平友好关系，给那里的人民留下了良好的印象。 1 1. 郑和下西洋宝船模型 A model of one of Zheng He's ships 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 335Zheng He was a pioneer at a time of great world navigation. His first voyage to the "Occident" was 87 years earlier than Christopher Columbus' discovery of the New World, 92 years earlier than Vasco da Gama's arrival to India, and 114 years earlier than Ferdinand Magellan's global navigation. As a diplomatic envoy, his voyages not only boosted economic exchanges between China and countries in South Asia and Africa, but also established peaceful and friendly relationships with countries he visited, leaving a positive impression on the people there. 亚非许多国家和地区，至今还保留着不少同郑和有关 的遗迹。比如，印度尼西亚有个港口城市叫三宝垄，附近 的山上有个三宝洞，洞中有郑和塑像。据说郑和船队曾在这里登陆暂住，每年阴历六月三十日，也就是传说中郑和登陆的日子，华侨们都要举行盛大的庆典来纪念郑和；马来西亚有座三宝山，山下有三宝井，井旁有三宝亭，亭内供奉着郑和的牌位；印度有石刻三宝雕像。非洲东岸的索马里，有个中国村取名郑和屯。 In many countries and regions in Asia and Africa, there are still quite a few relics related to Zheng He. For example, there is a port city called Semarang ( 三宝垄 in Chinese language) in Indonesia, on a hill nearby there is Sanbao Cave, inside which stands a statue of Zheng He. It is said that Zheng He's fleet once landed and stayed there. On the 30th day of the 6th month of the Chinese calendar every year, the date when Zheng He's fleet landed according to legend, local overseas Chinese hold great celebrations to commemorate Zheng He. In Malaysia, there is a hill called Bukit China Hill ( 三宝山 in Chinese), at the foot of the hill there is a Sanbao Well, beside the well there is a Sanbao Pavilion, and inside the pavilion is a tablet for the memory of Zheng He enshrined. In India, there is a stone statue of Zheng He. And in Somalia on the eastern coast of Africa, there is a Chinese village, which is also known as "Zheng He Tun" (Zheng He's Settlement). 2 3 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 336西学东渐与东学西传 The Mutual Diffusion of Western and Chinese Learning 在明末清初，西方耶稣会士纷纷来华传播天主教，主 要来自意大利、法国、德国、西班牙及比利时等欧洲国家。 他们中很多人很有学问，为了消除中国人的排外心理，融入中国社会，传教士们往往以介绍西方文明的方式开展传教活动，从而将以西方近代科技为主的“西学”传入中国。另外，他们还自觉或不自觉地担负起了向西方传播中国文化的使命，这就是所谓的“西学东渐”和“东学西传”。 In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, Jesuit priests from the West came to China in succession to propagandize Catholicism, mainly arriving from European countries such as Italy, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. Many were learned people. In order to eliminate anti-foreigner sentiment of the Chinese people and integrate into the Chinese society, the missioners often propagandized by introducing Western civilizations, and thus brought the "Western Learning" featuring modern Western science and technology to China; in addition, they also consciously or unconsciously undertook the mission of spreading Chinese culture to the West. The result was the so-called mutual difflusion of Western and Chinese learning. 意大利传教士、学者利玛窦，是东来传教的先行者和奠 基人。1583 年来到中国后，他学习中文，钻研汉学，结交 中国官员和社会名流，宣讲欧洲的科技文化。他同明朝大臣徐光启 ①关系密切，与徐光启一起翻译了欧几里得的《几 何 原本》，将西方数学、笔算方法介绍到中国。利玛窦在传授西方科学知识的同时， 还向西方初步介绍了中国的儒家学说。 Matteo Ricci, an Italian missionary and scholar, was a pioneer missionary in the East. After his arrival in China in 1583, he learned the Chinese language, studied Sinology, made friends with officials and famous people of China, and promoted the science and technology of Europe. He had a close relationship with Xu Guangqi ①, an important minister of the Ming Dynasty. He and Xu Guangqi worked together to translate the Elements written by Euclid and introduced Western mathematics and arithmetic into China. Meanwhile, Ricci also 1 中外文化交流篇 Cultural Exchanges Between China and Foreign Countries 337preliminarily introduced the Confucianism of China to the West. 继利玛窦之后，著名的传教士还有罗明坚、艾儒略、 汤若望、 南怀仁等， 他们引进西学， 对明清的数学、 天文学、 地图学贡献巨大。此外，有的传教士还把西洋音乐、绘画、建筑艺术带到中国，并与中国传统艺术相结合，形成了“中西合璧”的艺术形式。坐落在北京西郊的“圆明园”就是中西建筑相融合的代表作品。 After Matteo Ricci, famous missionaries were Michele Ruggieri, Jules Aleni, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, Ferdinand Verbiest and others, who introduced Western education into China, making great contributions to the mathematics, astronomy and cartography of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Furthermore, some missionaries introduced Western music, painting and architecture into China, and combined them with traditional Chinese arts, thus forming the artistic form of "combination of Chinese and Western quintessence." For example, the Yuanmingyuan (Old Summer Palace) in the western suburbs of Beijing was just such a masterpiece of the combination of Chinese and Western architecture. 西方各国传教士为了在中国传教，努力学习中国语言 文字和典籍，从而受到中国文化的熏陶。在这个前提下， 他们开始向欧洲和他们的国家提供中国更真实的信息。经他们的翻译、著述和宣传，一个历史悠久、文化灿烂的东方古国在欧洲人面前逐渐清晰，甚至在欧洲引起了“中国热”。欧洲人知道了儒学和道学，见到了中国的学术书籍，并开始盛行穿丝绸、喝红茶、用瓷器、在庭院里修建亭台楼阁。涵养丰富的中国学术，还成为欧洲启蒙运动者的思想源泉，如笛卡尔、伏尔泰等的哲学思想，都不同程度地打上了中国古代哲学思想的印记。 In order to propagandize in China, missionaries from all countries in the West worked hard to study the Chinese language and classics, and were thus influenced by Chinese culture. Under such a background, they began to provide more accurate information about China to Europe and their homelands. Through their translation, writings and promotion, they gradually presented a clear image of an ancient Oriental country with a long history and a brilliant culture to Europeans, and even caused a "Sinomania" in Europe. The Europeans came to know Confucianism and the doctrines about the Way, read academic books from China, and set the fashion of wearing silk, drinking red tea, using porcelain, and building Chinese style pavilions and platforms in courtyards. Chinese academics, rich in content, also provided a source of thought for the participants of the Enlightenment in Europe; for example, the philosophical thoughts of Ren é Descartes and Voltaire had been impressed with the mark of philosophical ideas from ancient China.小注解·Footnotes ① 徐光启：中国明末著名 的科学家、农学家、政治家， 中西文化交流的先驱之一。他曾主持历法的修订，编写了农学著作《农政全书》，与利玛窦合作翻译了《几何原本》，将“几何”概念引入中国。 ① Xu Guangqi: A famous scientist, agriculturist and statesman in the late Ming Dynasty, and one of the pioneers in the cultural exchanges between China and the West. He organized the revision of the Chinese calendar, composed and wrote an agricultural book titled the Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Pertinent Ideology , and co- translated, together with Matteo Ricci, the Elements to introduce the concept of geometry into China. The portrait of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci1. 徐光启和利玛窦画像 中国文化常识 Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture 338修订说明 Remarks about the Revision 根据海外华文教育的发展变化， 以及在使用过程中海内外各方面反映的意见和建议， 我们及时组织力量对 《中国历史常识》 《中国地理常识》 和 《中国文化常识》 进行了修订。 与前一版相比，本版增删了部分章节和插图，吸收了国内外最新研究成果，更正了一些错误，内容更加充实、准确。 In reply to the evolving development of overseas Chinese education as well as feedback and suggestions received from the stakeholders both at home and abroad, we decide to mobilize the available resources to make revisions of Common Knowledge about Chinese History , Common Knowledge about Chinese Geography , and Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture . The current edition is more informative and concise than the previous one in that we have drawn on the latest research work, corrected some errors and mistakes, and added or deleted either the content or illustrations accordingly. 本次修订工作由南京师范大学和北京华文学院承担。其中，南京师范大学负责《中 国历史常识》和《中国地理常识》，北京华文学院负责《中国文化常识》。中译英工作 由中国翻译协会承担。 The revision project is undertaken by Nanjing Normal University and Beijing Chinese Language College. Specifically, the former takes charge of both the Common Knowledge about Chinese History and Common Knowledge about Chinese Geography , while the latter of Common Knowledge about Chinese Culture . Translators Association of China takes charge of the Chinese to English translation. 本次修订得到了湖南师范大学夏赞才教授、厦门大学耿虎教授、首都师范大学阎守 成教授的大力帮助，特此致谢。 We'd like to gratefully acknowledge the generous assistance from Prof. Xia Zancai with Hunan Normal University, Prof. Geng Hu with Xiamen University, and Prof. Yan Shoucheng with Capital Normal University in the revision project. 因水平所限，本版仍难免有讹误或不当之处，敬请指正。 We are fully aware of our constraints in meeting the challenging task, hence any invaluable corrections from our readers and stakeholders would be highly appreciated. 2014 年 9 月 September, 2014